Remote Ready Biology Learning Activities

The planet PSB had 20 different types of weed. All were green in color, and few had flowers, so the main criterion for categorization was leaf shape and size. A few species include the jagged-edge clover weed, the fat fuzzy weed, and the Minnesota weed which we felt was reminiscent of the wheat fields of the state.

In the tree category, we only found two species. The star tree was characterized by large, star-like leaves. As opposed to the spikey tree which had longer, spikier leaves.

On the surface of PSB, we found a vast array grasses, lichen and moss. There was soft moss and hairy moss, which generally covered the base of trees. Only one form of lichen was found, but the dead banana lichen proved to be most interesting. However, further study was inhibited by lack of funding. The grasses proved to be most difficult in its classification because of the various types. There were three particular types of grass-voluptuous, tall and shaggy- which were closly related and could belong to the same genius.

Finally the bushes and shrubs included blooming, spikey berry, spoon, and crew. We differentiated between them based on leaf shape. For instance, the blooming shrub has small bright green leaves and the spoon bush has dark, spoon-shaped leaves. We also encountered a dead bush that with further analysis could be identified.

Though this first encounter proved successfull in finding life on another planet, further study is required to fully understand the complexity and the actual relationship between plants on both planet PSB and planet Earth.

24 plants were discovered. They were placed into the following categories: bushes, trees, grasses, small plants and ground covers.

Bushes: 3 types. All bushes have the following traits: they stem from one root (branching off close to the ground), have green leaves, and are able to grow in the shade.

Bush #1: Fuzzy leaves growing in clusters of 9+ leaves. Big leaves at the bottom, newer growth towards the center of the cluster.

Bush #2: Waxy, short needles. Small red berries and immature dark green berries.

Bush #3: Small, oval shaped waxy leaves. Many per branch.

Also found: dead shrub, uncertain which variety.

Trees: 2 types. All trees have green leaves and have a trunk growing from a single root. Ground cover #1 (see below) growing near base and on trunk. Root system partially exposed. About 40 feet tall.

Tree #1: smooth bark with disruptions. Multiple leaves per stem growing out of branches. Spikey nuts (seeds) fall from tree. 

Tree #2: Star shaped green leaves. Rough bark.

Grasses: 3 types. Both are green and long. Stay close to the ground.

grass #1: thin individual leaves.

grass #2: thicker reed-like leaves with sharp edges.

grass #3: dark green, thicker than grasses 1 or 2.

Small plants: 13 types. All have green leaves with distinct shapes. Grow no higher than 2 feet.

s.p. #1: green, flat spikey leaves.

s.p. #2: medium sized green leaves, on single stem.

s.p. #3: dark green, two leaves on a single stalk.

s.p. #4: tiny green leaves and small yellow flowers (5 petals). All clustered on a single fuzzy stalk.

s.p. #5: smooth green leaves.

s.p. #6: serated green leaves (5 per stalk).

s.p. #7: small green leaves on single stalk with flower cluster (yellow) at top.

s.p. #8: flat leaves with green seed stalk growing out of center.

s.p. #9: huge, broad leaves. Grows straight from the ground. Diameter of about 3 feet.

s.p. #10: green leaves with white splotches (disease?)

s.p. #11: bright green leafy clusters, short to ground, concentrated in one area.

s.p. #12: tiny dark green plant with small leaves. White spots. 3 leaves per stalk.

s.p. #13: enormous dark green leaves, red stems.

Ground Cover: 2 kinds.

g.c. #1: soft, easily removed, green/brown in color, individual growths in a large group. Grows in shade.

g.c. #2: green leaves on a long, vining red stem.

The plants evolved close to the ground because there is not enough sunlight in the area to let them grow higher. The trees are higher because they're older - they cause the shade that stunts the other plants' growth. Keep the competition down!

Where there's no shade, the plants are smaller because they are new growth - haven't reached their full height yet? Need funding to investigate this further.

Background:
Due to all prior knowledge, we hold that life exists when any or all of the following occur in an organism:
* dependent on energy
* highly impobable / organized
* bounded

Introduction:
Drs Hoyt, Ellis and Amlin landed on a previously uncharted, undiscovered, and unnamed planet on the 10th of Spetember at 1.30pm Atlantic Earth time. We hereby claim the right to name said planet, (as defined in the Eplorer's Law) which we shall exercise at a later date and time.

Upon arrival, we encountered certain organisms which, in conjuction with our background knowledge, we deem to be, in fact, living. These organisms were dependent on a source of light and heat similar to our Sun. Organisms which were not touched by this source of light and heat lost energy and died. (They became brittle, changed color, fell to our feet and became, in fact, lifeless.) They therefore show evidence of a life-span. Each organism exhibited a complementary structure that extended underground. The larger organisms showed major evidence of waste products. We also found evidence of growth with different sizes of the same-looking organism. For these reasons, we consider that all these organisms are living.

Observations:
We classified the organisms into three classes according to size:

CLASS A) Shorter than two feet tall.
1) All one floppy, pliable piece of organism. Moves with any type of force (wind, etc.)
2) Identifiable stem, but still bendable. Also move with slightest force.
3) Very small. Inter-connected growth-system. Seemingly dependent on class C.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS FOR CLASS A: The largest class -- covers the most area.
Most variable types of organisms. Basically all the same shade of green. Least permanant -- most easily displaced. Least amount of waste. Each organism has one long stalk. No branches. Stems/stalks are very thin. Color

CLASS B) 2 ft to 8 ft tall.
1) Broad, single leaves. Many veins in leaves. Branches are most spread-out. Tends to be shorter than others in class. Leaves appear in clusters.
2)Sword-type leaf. Small leaves in abundance. Numerous leaves. Spherical red berry-like growth attached to random branches.
3) Circular, shiny, broad leaves. Leaves appear in pairs on stem. Thicker leaves.

GENDERAL OBSERVATIONS FOR CLASS B: Leaves on branches were arranged in some kind of pattern.
More complex branch pattern than Class A.
All branches made up plant -- as opposed to one trunk with many branches.
Lots of evidence of waste.
Branches were brittle, less pliable than in Class A.
Definitive underside of leaf.

CLASS C) Over 8 ft.
Appeared to have distinctions in leaf and stem. But adequate study was not performed due to time and monetary constraits. The most promising of the three classes, we all agree that this Class is worthy of further investigation.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS FOR CLASS C:
Flat, broad leaves with veins.
Thick, stocky trunk.
Not easily displaced, very attached in its environment.

CONCLUSION:
We conclude that the organisms were living. Yet the only way to unquestionably discover if this is "true" would be to further study the said planet with observations over time.

Description of life forms in the "remote planet"...
I.Short organisms (.5 inches- 1 ft.)
a. dry/weathered/brown/crispy/yellow/thin/fragile/weak
b. under tall organisms- less sunlight; less energy?

II. Medium organism (4 ft.to 7ft.)
a. "shrub-like" organisms; thicker leaf, but shorter than short organisms...start to develop closer to the ground;
b. Even though they're in the same conditions, one is completely dried out while the others are green and flourishing
c. located under tall organisms which implies they get less sunlight due to shaded areas

III. Tall Organisms (15ft. -25ft.)
a. greener than all other organisms because they have the most direct access to the sunlight?
b. different "leaf" shapes implies different types of trees live on this planet

Questions??

1. What energy sources do these organisms depend on to survive?

2. Why are some short organisms greener than the rest? Is it because of sunlight or location?

3. Does it rain? Snow? Do these organisms depend on anything other than sunlight?

4. Fact: The greener short organisms "soil" is moist, while the drier short organisms are dry. Does this contribute to the outcome?

Tools we used to differentiate plant species: We used organizational structure to determine different plant species desptite different stages in development. For example leaf patterns, veins, size, etc..in combination these categories allowed us to determine different species. The following plants are what our team discovered on the unkown planet:

Grasses: pre-requisites for classification: Slim leaves, parallel veins, smooth edges.

Grass 1: Bluish-green color, 7-8in tall, smooth, grows abundantly in shaded areas, in the far corner.

Grass 2: Yellow-green color, shoots of leaves come out of the stalk, 12-18 in tall, had a seed puff growing out the top, with long hairs and fuzzy seeds.

Grass 3: Green, short leaves growing out of the stalk, leaves were pointed, 6-7in tall, seed pod at the top.

Grass 4: Green, 3-6 in, no visible seeds, individual leaves growing straight out of the ground, didn't grow well without sunlight.

Weeds: pre-requisites for classification: Found intermittedly among other plans species, leaves seemed to grow from focal point beneath the ground.

Weed 1: Jagged leaves, flower growing in middle. 6in.

Weed 2: 1 ft tall, hairs on the leaves, leaves little and round, seeds in pods on top.

Weed 3: 7in tall, sparse rounded leaves.

Ferns: we only have one

Fern 1: light yellow green, clustered leaves, 8 in, low to the ground.

possible food sources: Plants that bore fruit, possibly edible.

Bush 1: 7ft, branches coming from one root, leaves on tips of every branch, bore small red berries.

Plant 1: Heart shaped leaves, small red berries with seeds on outside, low to the ground.

Clover 1: small to ground yellow flowers, 3 leaves on stem, shaded,

Bushes:
Bush 2: 6ft, waxy rounded leaves.
Bush 3: 6ft, light green clustered leaves.

Trees:
Tree 1: 3 stories tall, rounded leaves bark peeling
tree2: 2.5 stories tall, light green 5 pt leaves, produces a spikey ball shaped nut.

Fungus 1: jagged and porous mint green, grows on bark.
Fungus 2: orabge bumps, looks like melted wax.
Fungus 3: tubular, white yellow color, 3 cm. tall.
Fungus 4: white dispersed throughout the bark, when in crevases displays underside, which has a fan shape.
Fungus 5: white with yellowish top, fan shaped.
Fungus 6: spongy moss at the bass of Tree 1 small green leaves.

unkown1: greenish pink color, in young plants large plants had a solid green color,
Unknown2: tiered, 4 petaled flowers, bursts of 5-6 leaves.
Unknown 3: 1ft tall located near bush 2.
unknown 4: jagged leaves growing out of the grate.

Mom plants are large specimens of weeds:
Mom 1:2 feet across, low to ground, veined leaves,
Mom2: bubbly leaves, shiny looking, leaves heart shaped.
Mande Maclay, Tegan Georges, Diana Fernadez

our trip to the subject planet was informative, but there remains much research to be done. our general summary of observations is
as follows:
we divided the obvious plant life into three basic categories, based on size, shape/form, and similarity to plnat forms on earth:

1) plants resembling earth trees (tall, rigid, with a hard bark-covered trunk like stem, and branches ending in leaves): 2+ different
species

we considered the two "trees" we found to be different species because, while they were similar in size and general tree-like
attributes, they had different leaf forms, different branch patterns and different trunk characteristics ("bark" texture and color, size,
ratio to rest of tree)

2) bushes/shrubs: 5+ since these plants seemed to be of a size in between that of the "trees" and the ground cover plants, we
decided to call them "bushes" due to their similarities with earth bushes. these plants were all roughly 3-6 feet tall, with branches
that ended in leaves an/or needles. these were of varying shapes and sizes and textures and colors, but they all shared the
characteristic of being smaller than those of the trees. Some bushes were found to bear fruit or seed-like "pods", as was one of hte
trees, whereas nothing of that form was found on ground cover plants upon our brief inspection. However, this could be much
better determined by more extensive research. We came up with three possible hypotheses explaining the size of hte shrubs: a) they
are a different category of plants from the trees and ground cover, b) they are trees whose growth is not yet complete, or c) they are
trees whose growth has been stunted by being shaded from light by the (seemingly) fully developed trees.

3) ground cover plants: 31+ these came in all shapes and sizes, from under two centimeters up to more than 30, and everthing in
between. their stems were more flexible and soft than those of hte trees and shrubs, and they seemed to lack the protective "bark"
layer for the most part. the exception to this were some small plans with similar leaves to one of hte trees, and our hypothesis is that
this could possibly be a "sapling" or some sort of very early "tree" growth. within the category of "ground cover" we discoverd
what we believe to be two sub-categories, one being "moss" and the other "fungi", based on their similarities to the earth organisms
by those names. the "fungi" seemed to only be growing on what we believe to be teh dead remains of a "tree," which lead us to
believe that they may be some sort of parasite, possibly the cause of the "tree"'s death. Another hypothesis is that the seemingly
dead tree died because it was completely shaded by light from both the tree branches above it and a large hunk of what appeared to
be shale rock. another interesting characteristic of the ground cover is taht we were able to determine that, at least amongst the
plants that we sampled, there is an obvious root structure underlying hte soil while the part above is green and of a different texture.
this lead us to believe that these plants possibly recieve some sort of chemical from the sunlight that affects their coloring, similar to
plants on earth. we were unable to verify this finding with the trees and shrubs, as the plants were too big for any excavation under
such a short research period, but with a more extended deadline and budget we would be able to further investigate this topic. what
we were able to verify was that the trees seem to have a broad underground root system as well, which we concluded after
observing roots partially protruding from the ground surrounding the tree which had similar "bark" patterns, leading us to believe
that they were part of the same plant. also, the bushes and trees did display the same generally green coloring as the ground cover.

specific examples:

-there was one seemingly dead bush, which had no leaves and whose branches were dry, brown and brittle both inside and out
upon inspection, whereas the other bushes had branches whose insides were somewhat moist and green.

-there was a big patch of ground cover which appeared different from the rest, and which seemed to be in cooler, moister soil
overall. at hte time of our inspection the area was completely covered by shadow, and with further research we would be able to
determine if this were a different climate which would affect the plant's progress. also, as the patch of this different vegetation was
rather large, wiht all the plants growing densely together, we could assume that they do in fact reproduce and were spreading.
however, few plants and VERY few ground cover plants bore any evidence of fruits, seeds, or any other reproductive method
resembling those of earth plants. however, we have no way to know if this is simply because htese plants reproduce on some sort of
larger cycle, which we would be able to determine wiht more extensive research and more time for the project.

-on the ground on nearly all of hte site, particularly near the "trees", we observed leaves which appeared to be from said trees and
which were both brown and yellow in coloring, and appeared to be either dead or dying. the brown ones were of a brittle, easily
broken texture, whereas the yellow retained some of the rubbery, plastic categories of the green tree leaves.

A. One foot and below
I. <3 inches
a. light green
1.1/16 " stalks
a) leaves
1) spade shape
i) jagged contour
ii) smooth contour
2) oval shape
i) jagged contour
ii) smooth contour
3) rectangle shape
b) no leaves
2.1/8" stalks
a) leaves
1)spade shape
i) jagged contour
iii) smooth contour
2)oval shape
i)jagged contour
ii)smooth contour
3) rectangle shape
b) no leaves

b. dark green
1.1/16 " stalks
a)alternating leaves
1)spade shape
i)jagged contour
ii)smooth contour
2)oval shape
i)jagged contour
ii)smooth contour
3) rectangle shape
b) leaves symmetrical from stalk
c) no leaves
2.1/8" stalks
a)leaves
1)spade shape
i) jagged contour
ii)smooth contour
2)oval shape
i)jagged contour
ii)smooth contour
3) rectangle shape
b) no leaves

c. green/brown
II. < 6 inches (See above key)
III. < 9 inches (See above key)
IV. < 12 inches (See above key)

B. Between one and 10 feet
1. less than 1 " oval leaves
2. cylindrical leaves
3. large circular leaves
C. Between Above 10 feet

* ground cover and community of plant species noted for observational purposes. The possible takeover of portion of planet hospitable by humans is a large concern. Further rescources would allow for further research
Sarah Frayne and Kathryn Bailey

On Planet PSB we discovered many plants. We separated them into the following categories:

tree, small plants, grasses, mosses, shrubs, large plants.

we defined these with our accepted definitons from earth. a small plant was something under a foot or so tall, and a large plant was something larger than that. grass was short but widespread; moss was close to the ground and didn't have easily definable leaves. shrubs were short and fat trees that grew out rather than up; they also didn't have trunks. trees had trunks! they grew up rather than out.

we found 28 different specimens.

some examples of each:

we found 17 different varieties of small plants.
one example is a chive-like plant, which smells and looks exactly like a chive. interesting. what would darwin say about this? it is thin and long, no leaves, and feels like it is hollow. it has a pungent aroma.

another example is a flowering leafy small plant. the leaves are thin and grow directly off the stem. they have a grainy texture. at the top there are buds for flowers. the flowers will be yellow.

we found two different varieties of trees

both were tall; one had wider leaves than the other. the one with wide leaves had forked leaves and spikey balls that were attached to the leaf clusters. the bark was more course than the other tree. the tree with the slender leaves (which were also in clusters) had bark that was smoother and flakey.

we found four different varieties of grass

one example has flat leaves that are very thin and long. it divides at the top into more than one leaf. the leaves have grooves. they are cupped with a definitive point at the bottom of the cup. (like a piece of paper folded).

we found three different varieties of shrub

one example had waxy rounded leaves (they look like fake nails) that grew in clusters. the shrub was about six feet tall and about as wide. the stems were hard to break off. it was similar to a beach umbrella. the leaves were dark in color.

another example had small dark green leaves that grew in circular clusters around the stem. the shrub had small red berries with a large seed. the shrub had the appearance of an evergreen.

we found one variety of a large plant. it looked like a rhubarb plant. we smelled the stem but found no smells similar to the rhubarb; this could be because of its young age, or because it is not a rhubarb. the leaf is fuzzy and has a spade shape. it is deep green. the stem is a reddish color. the veins are very defined. the leaf is about the size of a normal human's face and can be larger.

we found one variety of moss. it grew close to the ground, was fuzzy to the touch, and very very dark green. forest green, actually. in places it was yellow in appearance but we concluded it was the same type of moss due to its appearance apart from color.

we have concluded that the environment on Planet PSB is very similar to that on Earth. the plants seem to resemble almost exactly those found on earth. one could say one was on earth. funny, that.

We found 32 species of plant life on the planet. They ranged in size from tiny to huge and spanned ground, mid, and high levels of growth. We distinguished the plant species by color, shape, size, texture, and location. All plants were green unless otherwise noted.

The following are the species we determined
#1 -- mid level bush with shiny, fuzzy, green, almond-shaped leaves, remnants of flowers.
#2 -- high level tree with 5-6 pointed, star-like, green leaves, on outstretched branches.
#3 -- ground level thin bladed grass
#4 -- ground level thick bladed grass
#5 -- ground level heart-shaped grean leaves
#6 -- ground level long, green, pointed leaves
#7 -- mid level tiny, shiny, smooth, green leafed bush
#8 -- mid level red berry producing thin, green, spikey needled bush
#9 -- ground level tall yellow-green medium width blade grass
#10-- ground level spikey moss
#11-- ground level soft fern-like spikey green leaves
#12-- ground level fuzzy spikey- edged prickley weed-like leaves.
#13-- high level flaking bark green, tear-dropped shaped, smooth leaves, branches growing straight up tree. Had spikey pods on ground.
#14-- mid level smooth, velvety green leaves, sappling/shrub.
#15 -- 3-leafed in shade, green ground covering.
#16 -- Discolored green/brown "eaten Looking" plant, sappling or shrub.
#17 -- ground level, small yellow flowers on clover-like tiny round leaves growing in groups of three.
#18 -- tall wide bladed grass with centers of long fuzzy "wheat" like flowers.
#19 --almond shaped weed like leaves ground level.
#20 -- fuzzy leafy geranium shaped leaves ground level.
#21 -- non-fuzzy spikey weed-like leaves layered and grow out of center.
#22 -- scalloped leaves with buds red and brown stem, green leaves.
#23 -- tall stemmed long weed like spikey flowered plant.
#24 -- tiny bunched up layered leaves with fuzzy new leaves at center.
#25 -- light green tiny scalloped layered leaves growing to med ground level with flowered plant and white speckles on leaves.
#26 -- Super shiny giant spikey edged green leaves with red stalks. Ground level.
#27 -- Huge green thick stalked ruffled edged leaves at ground level.
#28 -- Huge red-stalked scalloped and ruffled heart shaped green leaves, floppy, hang over to ground from stems.
#29 -- Parsley looking clustered bunched leaves.
#30 -- Symmetrical light green with a lighter greenish-white pattern on leaves, flat fern-looking ground level.
#31 -- Vine like leaves grow in circular pattern around stalk.
#32 -- Five leaves clustered with scalloped edges red around edges.

In order to count the number of plants, we observed and noted specific characteristics that differentiated and distinguished them. The following is our observations:

1. Really thin (gossamer) grass-like plant, yellowish.
2. Thin grass-like plant, green
3. Thicker grass-like plant, green
4. Broad leaf grass-like plant, green, very close to ground in clusters
5. Spiny grass-like plant, green
6. Tall, thin grass with alternate thicker blades at 90 degree angles
7. Small clovers with round leaves, green, very close to ground
8. Large clovers, green
9. Small plant with three spikey, green, tear-drop shaped leaves all at the top of the stem of the same plant
10. Small plant with four spikey, green, tear-drop shaped leaves with red spots, all at the stem of the same plant
11. Small plant with five spikey, green, tear drop shaped leaves all at the stem of the same plant
12. Cluster of broad, spikey leaves with deep cuts into the sides, close to the ground with basically no stem
13. Flowering very thin leaved and stalked with whorled leaves. Flowers were small, whitish and ball-like
14. Small, fern-like, double compounded plant
15.Moss, flat on the ground, with a dark base but small, green-tipped spongey tecture
16. Tree with star-shaped leaves
17. Tree with tear-drop shaped leaves
18. Six inch tall plant with a thick, red-striped stalk, alternate branches and two small leaves at the base of a really big leaf
19. Spade shaped small, single-leaved plant, lighter green in color
20. Five-point leaf with two small points at the base of three more pronounced points
21. Tear drop shaped, lopsided leavesm, three on a cluster on each stalk
22. Seven foot bush with thin needles at the end of branches, very small base but branches spawl
23. Six foot bush with small, round, waxy leaves and red berries
24. Similar to six foot bush in shape but leaves were longer and broader and no berries or wax coating. There were small bunches of leaves.

Questionables (molds and fungi that are either animal or plant)

- Moss (2)
soft spikes growing on the bark of trees
fern like, on ground between plants with star blooms

- Fungus (3)
blue fungus growing on trees, sprawling out from a central place
striped mushroom in shades of brown and white
yellow that sprouted like a mushroom on stump

Grasses (10)

Crab Grass
Club-shaped, leaved ivy
Prairie Grass
Wheat Grass
Long, thin grass, dark green, growing parallel to ground
Standard short grass, more yellow (lack of water?), 2-3 inches
Clovers (4)

Three-leaved
Four-leaved
14 round points
Speckeled leaves

Plants (15)

Strawberry-like plants, red berries
Mutant Collard Greens (2)

Green Stems, thin leaves
Purple Stems, wide leaves

Marigold-like, non-blooming plants
Dandilions (4)

Spiked leaves
Low, fuzzy
Rounded
Fern-like, centralized, low to ground

Small plants(7)

Vertical (5)

Spiked, enlongated leaves, with red base
Minature pussywillow, long stem, with white bloom
Lower leaves purple, upper leaves green (of medium size)
Violets
Mushroom-shaped leaves

Horizontal (2)

Red stem, small round green leaves, glossed
Thin, green Ivy with small staggered leaves

Trees and Bushes (5)

Maple tree
Silvery-green leaves, pointy
Pine bush with red berries
Larger leaves, thin, yellowy green
Small, hard, glossy dark-green leaves

2. Brown stalk
A: < 10 ft
a. needles b.soft leaves bb1.rounded bb2. pointed
B:>10ft
a:single point b:multi point

3.No stalk
A:green
a. spongy leaf b.no leaves/hard
B:other(color, or "Grobstein" category)
a. flat aa1:bumpy aa2:smooth/close to surface
b. protruding bb1:disc shape bb2:tubular shape

Amanda Maclay Diana Fernandez

A. Tree Like
1A. Tall (8' and taller)
1A'. Jagged leaves (papery bark)
1A". Five lobe leaves (regular bark)

2A. Smaller (8' and smaller)
2A'. needles with berries
2A". leafy
2A"1. Alive
2A"1'. Lt green leaves (not waxy)
2A"1". dk green leaves (waxy)
2A"2. Dead

B. Un-tree Like
1B. Ground Cover
1B'. Leafy
1B'1. Stringy
1B'2. Vuluptuos
1B'3. Shag
1B'4. Crab Grass
1B'5. Tall
1B". "Mossy"
1B"1. Moss
1B"1'. Soft
1B"1". Hairy
1B"2. Lichen

2B. Individual Plants
2B'. Leafy
2B". Flowery
2B"1. Red-vein crawling
2B"2. Tall flowering
2B"3. Yellow flowering
2B"3. Oreo
2B"4. Squash
2b"5. Pumpkin
2B"6. Red Berry
2B'1. More than one stem
2B'2. Single-stemed
2B'1'. Clusters
2B'1'1. Lilly pad
2B'1'2. Jagged-edge clover
2B'1'3. Clover
2B'1". Not clustered
2B'1"1. Smooth leaves
2B'1"2. Jagged leaves
2B'1"3. Spunky fern
2B'1"4. Fat fuzzy
2B'1"5. Long fuzzy

Stephanie Lane, Katie Campbell, Kate Amilin

****************************PLANT LIFE*********************************

I. PLANTS

A. soft texture

1. moss (close to ground)
2. skinny leaf/Linear
3. thick leaf

B. thin/hard texture and leaves

1. leafy branches/ Even Pinnate
2. few leaves/ Biternate
3. single leaves/YEW(needle foliage leaf)

C. single thick/hard trunk and leaves

1. Orbicular
2. Palmately Lobed

II. FUNGI

A. Black

1. round/cap/ Pilius
2. Oyster

B. Tan

1. Fan-shaped Pilius

C. White

1. Fan- shaped Pilius

D. Lite Beige

1. Mushroom

We noticed that the biggest difference between the plants is the support system, which then determines the size, shape, and foliage of the plants. We wanted to find the least complex way of organizing all of the differences. We didn't classify and specifically name all of the plant life here, we are just presenting the basic outline of how the organization.

Support System

I. Brittle

A. Trees
1. horizontal branches
2. vertical branches

B. Bushes
1. Needles
2. Contoured
a.Round tip
b. Pointy tip

II. Non-Brittle

A. Mosses
1. Soft spike
2. Fern like

B. Grasses
1. Bladed
a. Long and skinny
b. Long and flat
c. Short and skinny
2. Non-Bladed
a. Clover
-3 leaves
-4 leaves
-14 leaves

C. Small Plants
1. Leaves from root
2. Leaves from stalk

PLANTS

1.0) Single Stalk 2.0) Mult. Stalk 3.0) No Stalk
(single root) (single root) (sngl. or mult.)

1.1 - Branches
1.1.1 - smooth bark (oval leaves - tree#1)
1.1.2 - rough bark (star shaped leaves - tree#2)

1.2 - No Branches (weeds)
1.2.1 - Flowers
1.2.1 A - clover-like flowers (s.p.#12)
1.2.1 B - small plant with yellow flowers (s.p.#7)
1.2.2 - No Flowers
1.2.2 A - big spotted leaves (s.p. #10)
1.2.2 B - dk. green multiple solid leaves (s.p. #3)
1.2.2 C - dk. green single solid leaves (s.p. #2)

2.1 - Branches
2.1.1 - Needles (bush #2)
2.1.2 - Leaves
2.1.2 A - fuzzy leaves (bush #1)
2.1.2 B - waxy leaves (bush #3)
2.2 - No Branches
2.2.1 - weed with small yellow flowers (s.p. #4)

3.1 - Ground Covers
3.1.1 - Vine (g.c. #2)
3.1.2 - Moss (g.c. #1)
3.2 - Leaves straight from Root
3.2.1 - Skinny (grasses)
3.2.1 A - flat leafed grass (grass #2)
3.2.1 B - thin leafed grass (grass #1)
3.2.1 C - Fine grass (grass #4 - new!)
3.2.1 D - Chive (grass #3)
3.2.2 - Wide Leaves
3.2.2 A - Horizontal growth
3.2.2 A' - large leaves with seed stalk (s.p. #8)
3.2.2 A'' - huge plant (s.p. #13)
3.2.2 A''' - big plant leaves (s.p. #9)
3.2.2 A'''' - dandylion (s.p. #11)
3.2.2 B - Vertical Growth
3.2.2 B' - spikey plant (s.p. #1)
3.2.2 B'' - white spot plant (s.p. #5)
3.2.2 B''' - serated leaf plant (s.p. #14 - new!)

II No Trunks
---A no leaves
-----1 green
-----2 brown
---B leaves
-----1 linear leaves
-------
-----2 non linear leaves
-------a cordate
-------b jagged
-------c straight
-------d pinnatifid

1. Is it a plant? Yes? Go to 2.
2. Is it dificult to uproot? ...Yes: go to 3
............................No: go to 11
3. Is it majorly difficult to uproot? ...Yes: go to 4
......................................No: go to 7
4. Difficult to uproot......Has deep ridges on trunk?....Yes, go to 5
......Has smooth trunk with easy- peelable bark?...Yes, go to 6
5. Has 5-point leaf? CLASS C SUB 1
6. Has one-point leaf? CLASS C SUB 2
7. Do branches grow straight up?...Yes: go to 8
................................No: go to 10
8. Are leaves blade-like?.......Yes: go to 9
9. Does plant have red berries?.....Yes: CLASS B SUB 1
10. Has glossy leaves?....Yes: CLASS B SUB 2
.....................No: CLASS B SUB 3
11. Does it have blades? Yes: go to 12
.....................No: go to 17
12. Does it have a stalk? Yes: go to 13
..........................No: go to 16
13. Is stalk thick or thin? Thick: go to 14
.............................THin: go to 15
14: Does plant have a bud-like growth? Yes: CLASS A SUB 1
........................................No: CLASS A SUB 2
15. Does it have broad leaves? Yes: CLASS A SUB 3
..................thin leaves? Yes: CLASS A SUB 4
16. Does it have broad leaves? Yes: CLASS A SUB 5
..................Single blades? Yes: CLASS A SUB 6
17. Does it have a Stalk? Yes: go to 18
..........................No: go to 19
18. Does it have a flower? Yes: CLASS A SUB 7
............................No: CLASS A SUB 8
19. Does it have spiky leaves? Yes: CLASS A SUB 9
...............................No: go to 20
20. Are leaves elliptical in shape? Yes: CLASS A SUB 10
....................................No: CLASS A SUB 11

PLANTS
I. Woody
A. Trees
...1. branches
......-location
......-shape
......-size
......-texture
...2. leaves
......-shape
......-color
......-size
......-texture
......-location
...3. Fruit/Flower/Seed
......-color
......-texture
......-taste/smell
......-size
......-shape
...4. Root
......-location
......-shape
......-size
......-depth
...5. Trunk
......-texture
......-thickness
......-strength
......-color
......-height
B. Shrubs

II. Non-Woody
**see Woody Plants**
A. Plants
B. Grasses

Maggie, Emily, Laura B., Adrienne

on planet PSB the diversity was broken down into woody and non-woody.

1. woody plants : as the definitions below state, trees and shrubs are both woody plants. they are differentiated by height and where the branches start. we have them in the same category due to their woody stems.
...A) tree: a woody plant at least 5 metres high, with a main axis the lower part of which is usually unbranched.
...B) shrub: a woody plant less than 5 metres high, either without a distinct main axis, or with branches persisting on the main axis almost to its base.
(definitions found at http://www.b-and-t-world-seeds.com/k-o.htm#karyoevolution)

2. non-woody plants : these plants did not have a well-defined support system. they did not have woody stems.
...A) stems : these plants did have stems, but they were not woody; they were soft and fleshy. the stems were green or reddish in color.
.......a) large plants : the large plants were over one foot tall.
.......b) small plants : the small plants were under one foot tall.
............1) flowering
............2) non-flowering
...B) no stems : these plants did not have stems that were readily discernable. these plants grew close to the ground and in clusters. the clusters also grew close together, so it was hard to distinguish them from one another.
.......a) mosses : the mosses looked like a plant carpeting the ground. it was a consistent dark green color with yellow discolorations. the leaves are not distinct from each other. mosses grow along the ground, spreading out rather than growing vertically.
.......b) grasses : the grasses, although they do not have stems, were one continuous plant. the leaves had vein and were vertical and thin.
............1) flowering
............2) non-flowering

I. Plants

------A. No Bark

--------------1. Flowering plants

------------------a. Leaf distinctions (color, shape, size etc.)

------------------b. Stalks (color, thickness - realizing that age of the plant is an influence)

--------------2. Fronds - Non flowering plants (no visible buds and no evidence of sprouting)

------------------a. Generic Grasses (in referenece to earth's many and diverse grasses)

------------------b. Tall Grasses (over 7 inches tall)

------------------c. Stalked Plants (differentiated by leaf shape, color, patterns, etc)

--------------3. Mosses

------B. Bark

---------------1. Bushes

-------------------a. Texture of bark

-------------------b. Leaf shape, color, size, texture, etc.

-------------------c. Berries

---------------2. Trees

-------------------a. Growth Pattern

-------------------b. Leaves

-------------------c. Bark

II. Fungi

B). Trees--Large
A single vertical growing plant that branches out as height increases. It grows independently. Has one main stem which is grounded by stable roots. Height is normally greater than width. Able to sustain secondary growth (leaves). Branches begin growing outward at mid trunk.

C). Bushes--Medium
A plant having a width greater than (or close in length to) height. Branches begin growing outward at base of trunk. Branches contain many smaller leaves.

Plant with minimal height (in comparison with other groups found on planet)
D). Moss:
A ground plant with relatively no height. Grows ouward, over a surface area. Spft texture.

Surface Growing Plants
A) flat (1)
B) bushy (2)

Within the small plants:
A) grasses-a plant that grows in an individual strand
B) weeds--a small plant that has a stem which is the base for other growth such as leaves, buds, or flowers.

Small Plants
A) grasses- 1) thin i) long, thin, green waxy clusters (1)
2) thick i) leaf like one stem branches out (2)

B) weeds- 1) seeds i) loose seeds (12)
ii) grouped soft seeds (13)
2) cloved i) ridged leaves (6)
ii) smooth leaves (7)
3) vine-like i) tall (5)
ii) stuck to ground (11)
4) wide leafed i) tall (9)
ii) close to ground (3)
iii) spiky leafed (15)
iv) lettuce like leaves (17)
v) spotted (14)
5) flowered i) one stem with multiple flowers (8)
ii) with oval leaves (19)
iii) one flower (10)
6) buds i) long and stubbly (4)

Medium Plants
A) Bushes- 1) non leafed (4)
2) leafed i) needle-like (2)
ii) oval shaped a) large (1)
b) small (3)

Big Plants
A) Trees- 1) rough bark (1)
2) smooth bark (2)

IF:
A. Plant has continuous root system:
---a.If plant has clover-shaped leaves.
----------1.Small clovers with round leaves, green, very close to ground
----------2.Large clovers, green

---b.If plants have individual blades:
----------1.Thick blades
--------------------i. Thicker grass plant, green
--------------------ii. Broad leaf grass plant, green, very close to ground in clusters
--------------------iii. Spiny grass plant, green
---------------------iv..Cluster of broad, spikey leaves with deep cuts into the sides, close to the ground with basically no stem

----------2. Thin blades
--------------------i. Really thin (gossamer) grass plant, yellowish
--------------------ii. Thin grass plant, green
--------------------iii. Tall, thin grass with alternate thicker blades at 90 degree angles

B. If plants have individual roots:
--a. If plant has soft exterior
----1. Spikey leaves
----------i. Small plant with three spikey, green, tear-drop shaped leaves all at the top of the stem of the same plant
----------ii. Small plant with four spikey, green, tear-drop shaped leaves with red spots, all at the stem of the same plant
----------iii. Small plant with five spikey, green, tear drop shaped leaves all at the stem of the same plant

----2. Tear-drop shaped leaves
----------i.Compound leaves
----------------Small, fern-like, double compounded plant
----------ii. non-compound leaves
----------------* non-flowering
----------------------Tear drop shaped, lopsided leavesm, three on a cluster on each stalk
----------------------Six inch tall plant with a thick, red-striped stalk, alternate branches and two small leaves at the base of a really big leaf
---------------* Flowering
----------------------very thin leaved and stalked with whorled leaves. Flowers were small, whitish and ball-like

----3. Spade shaped leaves
---------i. spade shaped small, single-leaved plant, lighter green in color

--b. If plants have hard exterior (bark)
----1. branches originate at base of plant
--------i. needles
-------------Seven foot bush with thin needles at the end of branches, very small base but branches spawl
--------ii. leaves
----------waxy leaves
--------------Six foot bush with small, round, waxy leaves and red berries
----------non-waxy leaves
--------------similar to six foot bush in shape but leaves were longer and broader and no berries or wax coating. There were small bunches of leaves.

----2. branches originate above the base
--------i. star shaped leaves
--------------Tree with star-shaped leaves
--------ii. tear shaped leaves
--------------Tree with tear-drop shaped leaves

C. Un/Classified
----1. Moss, flat on the ground, with a dark base but small, green-tipped spongey tecture
----2. Appears to be a small tree, but did not know how to classify it until it matures to full size- Five-point leaf with two small points at the base of three more pronounced points

Erin Myers, Diana DiMuro, and Brie Farley

This classification should be used only on Planet Courtyard. It is created from our discoveries.

• I. Woody
  • A. Trees
    • 1. Upward Growth
    • 2. Outward Growth
  • B. Bushes
    • 1. Leafy
    • 2. Needles

Observations:

Fungi:uniform cells, 10.4 Micrometers in diameter, slightly oblong shape.
Small leaf: Jigsaw membrane: 39Micrometers, Stomatal: 26 Micrometers.
Large Leaf:Jigsaw membrane, Stomatal: 23.4 Micrometers
Earthworm: Non uniform cells: 13-15.6 Micrometers.
Human cartilage: Non Uniform: 10.4-13.0 Micrometers

Conclusion: We did not find a sepcific corrolation between size of organism and size of cell. We did however find that there was more variance in cell size the more complex the multi cellular organism.

Diana Fernandez, Amanda Maclay, Tegan Georges

Hypothesis: We think that diferent types of organisms have different types of cells.

Data:
Fungi cells: Long and stringy like spagetti, but not arranged in a cohesive pattern
Berry Cells: slightly elliptical with solid nuclei, kinda like fried eggs
Leaf Cells: circular, with jagged edges
Grass Cells: Rectangular/elliptical
Hair Cells: Long, stringy, ("hair-like" hehe...) cells that fit together in a set pattern
Eyelash Cells: Had similar structure as the hair, but had a deep, dark core that was continuous except for at the two ends. The edges had ragedy edges and the core was smooth
Earthworm Cells: Different shaped-sized cells, indicating different pars of the worm's body.
Human cartilagde: Elliptical roundish shape with possible nucleus inside.

Conclusion:
Yes, different organisms have different cells. Not only that, but diffrent parts of the organism are made up of different cells. Identification of a species/plant/organisms can be traced down to the most basic form, i.e., the cell. Because each organism's cells are so destinctive, identification can be based on those cells alone. This is cause for futher study.

In beginning to compare the size of cells with the size of their organism and then with each other, we hypothesized that the size of a cell would correspond with the kingdom of its organism. Therefore we predicted animal cells would be the largest whereas plant cells would be smaller. (In this stdy, we did not compare all five kingdoms, but just Animals and Plants.)

We looked at seven cells from a variety of sources such as a Paramecium, human thyroid, PSB courtyard planet bush, buttercup, and earthworms.

The following is our recorded observations of their size.

PSB courtyard planet bush
Organism sixe: 2.6 m approximately
Cell size: 26 micrometers

Paramecium
Organism size: +/- .5 milimeters
Cell size: 156 micrometers by 36.4 micrometers

Human thyroid
Organism size: 2-2.5 m approximately
Cell size: 85.8 micrometers

Blade of Grass
Organism Size: 114 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 18.2 - 57.2 micrometers

Earthworm
Organism Size: 74 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 10.4 - 182.0 micrometers

Buttercup Stem
Organism Size: 115 cm approximately
Cell Sizes: 15.6-26 micrometers

Corn Stalk
Organism Size: 3 m
Cell Sizes: 208-1040 micrometers

We were wrong (#5421 this week). Organisms don't just have one cell size but many different cells. The sizes aren't consistant within the organisms themselves, nor the different kingdoms. If we could look into this further, we might discover and define certain types of cells and find their size and how they correlate and compare that way.

In beginning to compare the size of cells with the size of their organism and then with each other, we hypothesized that the size of a cell would correspond with the kingdom of its organism. Therefore we predicted animal cells would be the largest whereas plant cells would be smaller. (In this stdy, we did not compare all five kingdoms, but just Animals and Plants.)

We looked at seven cells from a variety of sources such as a Paramecium, human thyroid, PSB courtyard planet bush, buttercup, and earthworms.

The following is our recorded observations of their size.

PSB courtyard planet bush
Organism sixe: 2.6 m approximately
Cell size: 26 micrometers

Paramecium
Organism size: +/- .5 milimeters
Cell size: 156 micrometers by 36.4 micrometers

Human thyroid
Organism size: 2-2.5 m approximately
Cell size: 85.8 micrometers

Blade of Grass
Organism Size: 114 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 18.2 - 57.2 micrometers

Earthworm
Organism Size: 74 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 10.4 - 182.0 micrometers

Buttercup Stem
Organism Size: 115 cm approximately
Cell Sizes: 15.6-26 micrometers

Corn Stalk
Organism Size: 3 m
Cell Sizes: 208-1040 micrometers

We were wrong (#5421 this week). Organisms don't just have one cell size but many different cells. The sizes aren't consistant within the organisms themselves, nor the different kingdoms. If we could look into this further, we might discover and define certain types of cells and find their size and how they correlate and compare that way.

In beginning to compare the size of cells with the size of their organism and then with each other, we hypothesized that the size of a cell would correspond with the kingdom of its organism. Therefore we predicted animal cells would be the largest whereas plant cells would be smaller. (In this stdy, we did not compare all five kingdoms, but just Animals and Plants.)

We looked at seven cells from a variety of sources such as a Paramecium, human thyroid, PSB courtyard planet bush, buttercup, and earthworms.

The following is our recorded observations of their size.

PSB courtyard planet bush
Organism sixe: 2.6 m approximately
Cell size: 26 micrometers

Paramecium
Organism size: +/- .5 milimeters
Cell size: 156 micrometers by 36.4 micrometers

Human thyroid
Organism size: 2-2.5 m approximately
Cell size: 85.8 micrometers

Blade of Grass
Organism Size: 114 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 18.2 - 57.2 micrometers

Earthworm
Organism Size: 74 mm approximately
Cell Sizes: 10.4 - 182.0 micrometers

Buttercup Stem
Organism Size: 115 cm approximately
Cell Sizes: 15.6-26 micrometers

Corn Stalk
Organism Size: 3 m
Cell Sizes: 208-1040 micrometers

We were wrong (#5421 this week). Organisms don't just have one cell size but many different cells. The sizes aren't consistant within the organisms themselves, nor the different kingdoms. If we could look into this further, we might discover and define certain types of cells and find their size and how they correlate and compare that way.

We feel that maybe the size of the cell is perhaps determined by the function of the cell- otherwise our data should be more consistent to our first thoughts about cell size. Even within the samples we found, there were different size cells.

Heather, Christine, Margot

corn............10 ft...........................0.80 um
tree leaf.......20 ft...........................1.30 um
earthworm.......0.25 ft.........................1.04 um
elodea..........0.50 ft.........................0.68 um
moss............0.10 ft.........................2.58 um

hypothesis: There is a direct correlation between the size of the organiism and the size of the organism's cells.

Conclusion: Our hypothesis was disproven because we did not find a sizable correlation between the size of the five organisms and the size of their cells.

Our original hypothesis was that all cells would be of a comprable size, regardless of the size of the organism. However, our observations proved that our hypothesis was wrong. No only did cell size vary from plant to plant, but there were also cells of differing sizes within the same organism.

We observed five different samples: grass, a tree leaf, and clover from the courtyard, and an earthworm and moss from the prepared slides. For individual cell size, our measurements were as follows (in micrometers):

Moss (1 inch): from 10.4-78

Earthworm (8-10 inches): from 5.2-13

Clover (3 inches): from 5.2-26

Grass (6 inches): from 13-104

Tree leaf: (40ft tree): from 26-130

hypothesis: Cell size does not depend on organism size

observations:

moss- 52.0 mm

Elodea- 102 mm

cheeck- 78.0 mm

corn stalk- 67.6 mm

earthworm- 52 mm (LONGER cells)
13 mm ( small cells)

Conclusion: Size of the organism does not account for cell size, but all cells are not the same size. There are even different cell sizes within one organism.

Questions....
1. Does cell function determine cell size?

2. Was it human error that accounts for the differences we saw?

3. Is volume a better way to measure cells?

Joanna Robertson, Yarimee Gutierrez, Jennifer Rusk

The original hypothesis was that organism size depends on cell size, that bigger organisms will have bigger cells.

Results are as follows:
Elodea cell - 50 um
Plant from PC cell - varied from 7.8 to 28.6 um
Zea stem cell - varied from 7.8 to 117 um
Amoeba cell - 262.6 um
Paramecium - 65 um

Our conclusion is that cell size does not determine organism size. However, this hypothesis stands when used for single celled organisms alone. Our observation of plant cells demonstrated the various cell size within one organism. Due to the congregration of similar sized cells within multicellular organisms, we concluded that they have varying sized cells for various functions.

Hypothesis: The size of an organism will not always correlate to the size of its cells.

Data/Observations: Corn Stem Cell - length: 70um Moss Cell - length: 78 um Elodea Cell - length: 50um Ameoba Cell - length: 36.4um Hair Cell - length: 100um

Note: Many of these samples showed cells of varying sizes within the organism. We recorded, for our purposes, the length of what appeared to be a relatively represetative cell (except, of course, in the ameoba, which is a one-celled organism).

Conclusion: Our hypothesis still appears to work. Within each organism, cell size varied, and between organisms cell size also varied, although without any apparent correlation to size of organism. For example, a moss plant is smaller than an elodea plant, but our observations showed moss cells larger than elodea cells.

Lab Hypothesis: Bigger organisms have bigger cells.

Collected Data through use of microscope:

Corn Stem cell size range: 7.8 -143 micrometers

Clover flower petal cell (from planet courtyard): 13 micrometers

Earthworm (one of many cells): 18.2 micrometers

Elodia cell width: 26 micrometers
Elodia cell length: 61.8 micrometers

Erin's Cheek cell: 50 micrometers

Ameba proteus : 200 micrometers

Conclusion: Bigger organisms do not actually have bigger cells. Cell size varies from organism to organism not depending on the size of the organism.

human thyroid
length: 234 um
width: 78 um
area: 18252 um^2

mushroom
length: 156 um
width: 9.1 um
area: 1419.6 um^2

earthworm
length: 169 um
width: 31 um
area: 5239 um^2

clover leaf
length: 91 um
width: 31 um
area: 2821 um^2

moss
length: 174 um
width: 52 um
area: 9048 um^2

(obviously, the area calculated is only a rough estimate not account for the irregular shape of the cells)
areas (ranked by size, largest to smallest):
human thyroid (18252), moss (9048), worm (5239), clover (2821), mushroom (1419).

The cells we measured are only single examples of a cell in each organism. The size of cells within a single organism vary greatly.
According to our data, there is no parallel between the size of the cells and the size of the organism. Our hypothesis is therefore incorrect.

Our hypothesis was that cell size relates directly to plant or animal size. We found, however, that just because a plant or animal is large is doesn't necessarily mean the cells of that living organism are large as well. Our evidence for this new idea is as follows:

Corn stem cells, from a corn stem, which as we all know is quite a large plant, were found to have cells about 90 micrometers across.

The Water Plant cells were between 50 and 100 micrometers. The water plants found in the lab are as big as that particular plant grows.

Buttercup stem cells were found to be between 50 and 70 micrometers. As we all know, buttercups are plants the size of redwoods, and are found in only select parts of Maine and New Hampshire. NO! This is actually a lie. Buttercups are small flowering plants found throughout the world. SMALL is the point we need to make here.

Moss (Mature Archegonium) was found to have cells roughly 125 micrometers in size. Think about moss. Think about size. Moss is small.

We also looked at a sample of cells from Ja Ja's mouth. As we all know, she is a large animal, being human. The cells were found to be from 50 to 120 micrometers in diameter.

From these samples we have determined that although there are many different sized plants and animals in the world, they do not all have different sized cells. Just because a plant may be larger than another plant does not mean its cells are larger than those in other plants. It would make sense that this is true, because if a plant had very large cells I would think the plant would be brittle, as the cell wall would have to be very large and tough to support a large plant. It makes more sense to build a large building with smaller, stronger bricks than with larger bricks. As Woo Woo just said, it's more the TYPE of cells.

We hope we have not offended anyone with our findings. Can we go home now?

ps tobacco looks nasty under a microscope. so does bleached hair. ...excellent...

For this lab we looked at different cell specimens and determined the average cell size for each specimen.
Hypothesis: The larger the organism is in real life the larger its cells.
Methods: For this experiment we used a simple microscope to determine cell structure and cell size for 5 different specimens, 4 of which had been previously prepared and one specimen for which we prepared the slide.
The general method we followed was to adjust the slide under the microscope under various lenses (usually using the highest powered lens) and moving the stage till the cell was at its best focus. Then we went on to measure its size using the ruler inside the lens. We looked at three different cell sizes for each specimen and then took the average of all the three measurements that we determined.

Observations:
Specimen 1:
HB 7-12, Hyaline Cartilage
1) 13x2.6 =33.8micrometer
2) 15x2.6 =39micrometer
3) 12x2.6 =31.2 micrometer
Avg. size =34.67micrometer
Roundish/Elliptical in shape

Specimen 2:
Elodea (plant)
1) 40x2.6 =104micrometer
2) 42x2.6 =109.2 micrometer
3) 39x2.6 =101.4micrometer
Avg.size =104.87micrometer
Rectangular in shape with rounded edges, lots of chloroplasts inside.

Specimen 3:
Lumbricus X-Section
1) 4x2.6 =10.4micrometer
2) 5x2.6 =13micrometer
3) 3x2.6 =7.8micrometer
Avg.size =10.4micrometer
Elliptical purple cells and roundish green cells could be seen.

Specimen 4:
Zea Stem C.S.
1) 43x2.6 =111.8micrometer
2) 59x2.6 =153.4micrometer
3) 46x2.6 =119.6micrometer
Avg.size =128.27micrometer
Different cells could be seen but the one examined and measured is a transport cell from the vascular tissues.The cell is big and unevenly shaped.

Specimen 5:
Cheek cells
1)77micrometer
2)76micrometer
3)78micrometer
Avg.size = 77micrometer
roundish in appearance.

Conclusion: We are happy to say that our hypothesis is wrong (yay!). Larger organisms do not necessarily have larger cells than smaller organisms.

Hypothesis: The size of an individual cell is directly related to the size of the complete organism.

Earthworm--> 5.2 micrometers (ums)

Moss--> 130 mircometers (ums) (we also saw smaller cells, but could not measure them)

Elodea--> 85.8 mircometers (ums)

Dried Tobacco--> 33.8 micrometers (ums)

Mare's skin--> 65 micrometers (ums)

An individual moss is about 5 cm long compared to an elodea branch which is about 10 cm long. The cells of these two organisms are 130 ums and 85.8, respectively. A human epidermis covers a person who is about 5'4", with a cell size of 65 ums, in comparision with tobacco (dried) that has a cell of 33.8 ums. Finally, the earthworm can grow up to 20 cm long, and its cells are only at the size of 5.2 ums.

In conclusion, the size of an individual cell is not directly related to the size of the complete organism. Also, different parts of the same organism can have different sized cells (as seen in the moss cells)

Measurments:

2micrometer bead-143 micrometers in movement
4micrometer bead-80.4 micrometers in movement
6micrometer bead-5micrometers in movement

Variables: due to the fact that i have a lazy eye and Mande has horrendous vision, keeping track of the bead proved difficult and may have had have effected our outcome.

Onion cell

Hypothesis: Adding water will create movement within the cell wall therefore causeing the cell membrane to expand (turgid), the addition of salt however will cause the membrane to retract within the cell wall.

Observations:
3% salt solution-all cells are turgid with noticible nucleus.
Distilled H2O- Cells are clear under scope, with turgid cells, noticable nucleus.
25% salt solution- Cell membrane appears smaller than cell wall(plasmolized), not all of the cells retain this plasmolized state, some are still turgid.

Conclusion:
Water molecule movement seems to be inhibited in some way by the addition of salt, because the cell membrane retracted within the cell wall, when salt was applied therefore implying that the water created movement within the cell hence swollen and retracted states of the membrane.

Movement in a thirty second period

2 microns: First Trial- 35 units (91 microns)
Second Trial- 22 units (57.2 microns)

4 microns: First Trial- 11 units (28.6 microns)
Second Trial- 14 units (36.4 microns)

8 microns: First Trial- no movement
Second Trial- 1 unit (2.6 microns)

This data supports the hypothesis that bigger molecules do not move as quickly as the smaller ones.

Onion Observations

3% solution- some plasmolyzed cells

Distilled Water- mostly turgid cells

25% solution- mostly plasmolyzed cells

Water fills up the cells because its molecules are lighter than salt's and move quicker. Distilled water has a lower viscosity than saltwater, so it can flow quicker into the cells.

2um............4 segments
4um............2 segments
8um............1 segments

all measurements were taken at the 40x power

the data suggests that the hypothesis is correct. the larger the bead the less it moves

onion data

3% salt.......turgid
H2O...........turgid
25% salt.......plasmolyzed

the data suggests that the presence of salt changes the cells.

Both observations combine to suggest that the cells are turgent with water because the movement of the molecules pushes the membrane, but when the salt is added the membrane becomes denser/heavier and so the water is unable to move it outwards to the cell wall.

Sarah Frayne
Stephanie Lane

Trial #2: We looked at what we think was 4 Micron beaded water, but we couldn't see it moving. Then we thought that we saw the molecules, but they were stationary. Then Will and Prof. Grobstein informed us that we did not have enough water on our slide, and so we tried again.

Trial #3: This time we were sure to put 4 Micron beaded water on the slide, and after again much playing wih the microscope, we were able to find the water molecules, which were moving, but very slowly, especially when compared to the movement of the 2 Micron water. The 4 Micron water moved about 109 micrometers in three minutes.

Trial #4: With the 8 Micron beaded water, we looked through the 'scope and saw that the molecules were hauling ass (it's an industry term) on the slide. When we expressed our surprise about this, Will informed us that perhaps we should look in again, and when we did, the molecules had slowed down significantly - in fact, they were hardly moving at all. We concluded that we had begun our observation too early and had not given the molecules tme to settle down. In three minutes, the 8 Micron water moved 44 micrometers.

The Onion Phenomenon

#1: With the 3% salt solution, several of the cells were plasmolyzed, and some are even empty (AAHH!!!). This is because Will overestimated the isotonic solution, which is the level of salt solution that is in perfect harmony with the cells (bad Will.) This may also be because we chose as our subject the outermost layer of the onion, which Will says may be closer to death. Perhaps our obervations would have been different if we had chosen a layer of onion closer to the core.

#2: After adding the water, all of the cells appeared to be empty. However, we have learned that this clear and empty appearance is somewhat deceptive. All of the cells were turgid, and Will was wrong when he told us that the cells were really plasmolyzed. After reducing the light source and focusing in a little closer, we could see the green chloroplasm along the cell wall, and a nucleus in almost every cell.

#3: After adding the 25% salt solution, we found that a large percent of the cell membranes have been plasmolyzed. This would lead us to believe that the more salt which is present, the more plasmolyzed the cells become.

OConclusions: Because the cells were the most turgid when immersed in the pure water solution, the NaCl is therefore responsible for the collapse of the Cell Membranes. We hypothesize this occurs because the NaCl has an averse reaction to the water: when the onion sample is immersed in the pure water solution, the molecules move faster and therefore become turgid enough to fill the entire space of the cell wall. Because when NaCl is present, the cell membrane shrinks away from the cell wall, we think that the salt causes the molecules to move slower, thereby making it unable to become completely turgid.

Hypothesis: Our idea was that in water, big beads would move less than smaller beads following the principle that the water molecules are also moving.

We observed different sized beads in water and measured the largest radius covered by each over a period of four minutes.

8 micron beads: largest radius covered 18.2 micrometers
4 micron beads: largest radius covered 24.3 micrometers
2 micron beads: largest radius covered 33.8 micrometers

Our observations supported our hypothesis and so we will use these observations to aid explaination of the onion and water/salt solutions.

The onion cells with 3% salt solution showed primarily turgid cells with a few beginning to plasmolyze with the corners of their cell membranes pulling away from the cell wall.

The onion cells in water (distilled H20) were completely swollen, all cells are turgid.

The onion cells in the concentrated 25% salt solution are plasmolyzed. The cell membranes appear squished and shrunken within the cell walls.

So to explain this phenomena and what it has to do with the beads...
Both observations prove that water is in constant motion.
Our observations with the onion showed us the different ways that cells look with different concentrations of water and salt.

Our idea is that the concentration of salt in the water effects the degree to which water moves in and around the cell. Just like the size of the beads effected how much they moved.

So our next course of action would be to determine what the degree of water movement has to do with the appearance of the cell. Hopefully this would have something to do with density, but maybe not.

This exercise has challenged us in many ways and we realize that our final obersations are inconclusive, leading us to be wrong, yet again.

data:

bead size............maximum radial distance
2 um.................156um
4um..................15.6um
8um..................7.8um

conclusion: the data supports the hypothesis, leading us to believe that the larger the bead, the shorter the distance it will move. however, since we only did one trial of each bead size, these data may not reflect an actual trend.
-------------------
Procedure:
Prepared onion slide with one-cell layer.
When we looked at the onion cells in a 3% salt solution, the cell membranes and cell walls were quite close to each other, and the cells were turgent. When we looked at the cells after changing to a 25% solution, the cell membranes had drastically pulled away from the cell walls, and the cell itself had shrunk.

Given our new observations that water molecules are always in motion, we hypothesize that the cells shrank in the 25% salt solution because the water molecules had a smaller radial distance than when the cells were in a pure water solution, in which case the radial distance increased. We would like to take this lab to be one of our times to be wrong every day.

In the slide of the onion with 3 percent saltwater, we observed some shriveling of the membranes. When the distilled water was added, there cell membrane swelled to where they were turgid. When the 25 percent solution was added, there was severe shriveling of the membaranes. From this we concluded that the amount of salt in the water determines the amount of contraction of the cell membrane.

From both activities, we can conclude that water particles are always moving. Water caused the onion cell membranes to move; when the water was replaced by the salt, there was a moving in of the membrane, not a swelling out.

Christine Traversi
Margot Rhyu

Bead Size Distance Traveled
8 micrometer 10 micrometers

4 micrometers 104 micrometers

2 micrometers 13 micrometers

Onions

3% salt solution-> most cells are turgid, but some cells are plasmolyzed

0% salt solution-> more cells are turgid than plasmolyzed

25% salt solution-> most cells are asignificantly plasmolyzed.

Observations-
1. Water molecules are constantly in motion.
2. The quantiy of salt directly affects the distance traveled by water molecules.
3. Perhaps salt molecules are bigger.

Hypothesis: The smaller the microsphere; the faster its motion.

Methods: We took a special slide which had depressions on either side to act as a reservoir for any liquid that we would place there. After putting a specific liquid in the reservoir we covered it up with a cover slip and put the slide on the stage of the microscope to determine our observations. In this case we are supposed to measure the speed of the liquid molecules which can be found by measuring the distance a certain molecule moves in a fixed period of time since speed is distance divided by time. We used 2 minutes as the time for observation.

Observations 1:
1) 2 micrometer bead moved 30 micrometers in 2 minutes.
2) 4 micrometer bead moved 21 micrometers in 2 minutes.
3) 8 micrometer bead moved 1 micrometer in 2 minutes.

Conclusion: Sadly, we were right. Thus the smaller the size of the microsphere the faster it seemed to move. We believe that our conclusion is correct because it follows that a smaller molecule when bombarded by other moving molecules will move faster because the energy generated by the impact will cause the molecule to move faster.

Observations 2:
An onion membrane was placed on the slide and 3% salt water was dropped on it. The onion cells turned turgid. Next, distilled water was put on the same membrane and it was observed that the cells turned more turgid. 25% salt water was next added to the membrane and plasmolysis of the onion cells were observed.

Relating observations 1 and 2 we can say that the molecules moved from inside the onion cell to the outside area because the outside area had a higher concentration. We observed that as the added solution became more concentrated the cells became more plasmolyzed. In the higher concentration of solvent the number of molecules increased in each group (as the molecules bombarded each other they clustered together in groups) and therefore the groups moved more slowly.

These experiments have successfully demonstrated both brownian motion and osmosis.

Our findings support the thesis that says that water molecules are continuously moving, and the smaller the object was the more it moved.

Experiment 2:

3% salt solution made almost all of the cells turgid but a few of them were partially plasmolyzed.
0% salt solution made the cells even more turgid, and filled out the ones that were plasmolyzed earlier.
25% salt solution made the cells very plasmolyzed.

When there is salt in the environment outside of the cell, it takes water away from the inside of the cell, making the cell plasmolyzed. This relates to the hypothesis we supported in our last experiment (that water molecules are always moving whether we can see them or not) because the water was moving from the inside of the cell to outside of the cell, or vice versa.

Maggie Scott-Weathers and Emily Senerth

Onion Cell Observations:

In 3% solution the onion cells are pretty much turgid, and there is not much change from the cell appearance when the 3% solution is changed to distilled water, which has a 0% salt content. However, when the distilled water is replced by the 25% solution a majority of the cells become plasmolyzed.

Onion Cell Story:

When salt is introduced to the surrounding environment, the NaCl molecules are too big to pass through the cell wall. Therefore, to create equilibrium, water leaves the cell into it's surrounding environment. A cell is turgid when it has many water molecules in it because the water molecules move around and stretch the cell membrane to its capacity. This is the case in the distilled water solution. When salt is introduced to the cell's environment and water leaves the cell there are not as many water molecules to move around and thus the cell membrane "shrinks" and is not stretched to its capacity. The more concentrated the salt solution the more water exits the cell and thus the fewer water molecules inside the cell which makes the cell more plasmolyzed.

Experiment #2 Plant cells under three different conditions:
Th onion with the 3% salt solution showed all turgid cells. After replacing the solution with distilled water, not notced no change in the cell walls and membrane. We then replaced this solution with a 25% salt solution. We noticed that this solution caused the cell membranes to shrink, or to pull away from the cell wall.

Conclusion: In a higher salt concentration solution, we observed that the cells are all plasmalyzed. This is because the salt ions absorb the water molecules, which causes the actual membrane to shrink. Water is necessary to sustain the shape and structure of the cell membrane (in a plant cell, the cell wall will not move).

Microspheres
2m beads moved ~30 microns
4m beads moved ~13-15.6 microns
8m beads couldn't be seen moving

Onion Skin
distilled water saturated had mostly turgid cells
3% NaCl(q) saturated had some turgid cells and some plasmolyzed cells
25% NaCl(q) saturated had mostly plasmolyzed cells

The vacuoles of the cell filled with water when saturated with distilled water. This made the cell bigger and pushed its mebrane up against its cell wall (turgid). When we added 3% NaCl solution, water escaped the vacuoles and cell membrane as salt came into the cell, trying to equalized the salt level inside and outside the cell. This made the cells smaller and the membrane recede from the cell wall. When we added the 25% NaCl solution even more water was required outside the cell to equalize the salt levels in and out of the cell, making the individual cells more plasmolyzed.
Microbeads and onions are connected...

Observations: The 2micrometer bead moved a total of 20.8 ums away from its point of origin. The 4 micrometer bead moved a total of only 1.4 ums away from its point of origin. The 8 micrometer bed moved only .75 ums in total.

In the second half of the lab, we watched the cells of an onion react with different levels of salt within water. When the cells were placed in the 3% salt solution, we noticed that the cells' membranes were mostly turgid, although is some of the coners of the cells, there was slight plasmolyzation. In the distilled water, the cells were completely turgid, and fianlly in the 25% solution, the cells became very plasmolyzed, with the membranes clumpy together, pulling all the internal organelles closer together within the cell wall. (The wall itslef does not move).

Therefore, given these observations and our previous observations, we have found the meaning of life and the orgin of clumpy diversity.

The membrane retracting from the wall is a consequence of its interaction with the salt, an interaction due to the fact that water continually moves and passes through the membrane.

Once upon a time there was not a whole lot of salt in the ocean, right? That is analogous to the distilled water, so the cell (ie the earth's diversity) was turgid (and the reason for that more species and variations can exsist in distilled H2O then in the salt solution). THEN, salt slowly began to be more prevalent in the ocean and along with this, there came a little tiny bit of plasmolyzity (ie, clumpiness, because some of the intermediary species, like perhpas Heterotrophs with cell walls, couldn't manage). Even more salt came, and so the end result, which is the plasma all being CLUMPED together in the middle of the cell, was that all of the intermediary species that didn't work became extinct, and what you have left is clumpiness.

All measurements were taken at 15 second intervals.

First experiment: 0, .2, .4, .4, .6, 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2, 2, 2.2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.6, 2.8, 2.8, 3, 3, 3.

After change in H2O2 level (Experiment #2): .4, .4, .5, .6, .7, .8, 1, 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2, 2, 2.2, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

We used less H2O2 in the second experiment which raised the rate of reaction, resulting in a lower production of oxygen within the same time period.

Reaction Rate (First experiment)= .4
Reaction rate (second experiment)= .7

reaction rate = (1.2-.9)/3 = .1/1 minute

method: our portion of the experiment was to see if changing temperature would affect reaction time of the enzyme. We hypothesized that temperature woudl slow down the reaction time by making the oxygen release per minute lower than the test run that we first ran.
we found that the reaction time during trial one of the experiment was much higher (.8/1minute) than that of our reaction time for experiment number five.
mande adn debe

Experiment 1, Trial 1 (Volume of Oxygen in CCs, taken at 15 second intervals):
0,0,0,.2,.4,.5,.62,1,1.1,1.2,1.4,1.5,1.6,1.8,2,2.2,2.3,2.4,2.6,2.6,2.7,2.8,2.9,3,3.1,3.2,3.3,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.6,3.7,3.7,3.8,3.9,3.9,3.95,3.95,4,4.1,4.2,4.2,4.2,4.2
Reaction Rate:.533

Experiment 2, Trial 1:
.4,.4,.5,.6,.8,1,1.2,1.4,1.8,2,2.2,2.4,2.6,2.9,3,3.2,3.3,3.6,3.7,3.9,4,4.1,4.4,4.5,4.6,4.7,4.8,4.9,4.9,5,5.1,5.18,5.2,5.2,5.3,5.35,5.4,5.5,5.5,5.6,5.7,5.8,5.8,5.8,5.8
Reaction Rate:.83

Experiment 2, Trial 2:
0,.1,.2,.5,.7,1,1.2,1.4,1.6,1.8,2.2,2.2,2.4,2.6,2.7,2.9,3.2,3.2,3.4,3.7,3.9,4.1,4.2,4.3,4.4,4.6,4.6,4.8,4.8,4.9,5,5,5.1,5.2,5.2,5.2,5.3,5.4,5.4,5.4
Reaction Rate: .76

When we increased the amount of H2O2, the reaction became quicker and more noticeable to the naked eye.
We conclude that as the ratio between the two components decreases, the reaction becomes more rapid and stronger.

(All volume units are in cc.)

EXPERIMENT #1:Standard Catalase at Room Temp.

DATA: .1,.2,.3,.4,.6,1.0,1.2,1.5,1.5,1.8,2.0,2.3,2.4,2.5,2.7,2.8,
2.9,3.0,3.2,3.3,3.5,3.6,3.7,3.7,3.7

REACTION RATE: Volume at 2 minutes = 1.5cc
Volume at 4 minutes = 2.8cc
(2.8cc - 1.5cc)/2 = 0.65cc/min

EXPERIMENT #4:Change of pH of Buffer
(Due to time constraints we were only able to conduct one trial.)

DATA: 0.0,0.0,0.0,0.0,0.1,0.2,0.2,0.2,0.3,0.3,0.4,0.5,0.6,0.6,0.7,0.8,
0.8,0.9,1.0,1.1,1.2,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.4,1.5,1.6,1.7

REACTION RATE: Volume at 2 minutes = 0.2cc
Volume at 4 minutes = 0.8cc
(0.8cc - 0.2cc)/2 = 0.3cc/min

CONCLUSION: The pH effects the reaction rate. Lowering the pH
significantly slowed the rate of the reaction between the
enzyme and the hydrogen peroxide.

Obviously the enzyme reacts with the hydrogen peroxide to release the oxygen. The pH only effects the reaction time. It does not effect the amount of oxygen that is produced by the chemical reaction. As you can see from our second experiment in which we changed the pH of the buffer, the reaction would still produce the same amount of oxygen that the first experiment did but at a much slower pace.

This is our data:
Experiment 1:
0, .2, .4, .6, .8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.65, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.0, 2.05, 2.1, 2.15, 2.2, 2.2, 2.3, 2.35, 2.4, 2.4, 2.4, 2.4
Total time: 6 minutes 30 seconds
Rate: .2 ml/min

Experiment 2C:
Trial 1:
.2, .35, .6, .85, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.25, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.65, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.8, 4.8
Total time: 8 minutes
Rate: .6 ml/min

Trail 2:
.1, .2, .4, .6, .8, 1.1, 1.4, 1.7, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.1, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.65, 4.8, 4.8, 5.0, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.2, 5.4, 5.4, 5.4, 5.4
Total time: 9 minutes
Rate: .7 ml/min

Trial 3:
.1, .2, .4, .6, .8, 1.1, 1.4, 1.7, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.0, 4.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.4, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.8, 4.8
Total time: 10 minutes
Rate: .52 ml/min

Christine Traversi
Heather Price

Trial B Results
.6
.8
.8
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.2
Trial B reaction rate: .075
(Trial A reaction rate: .015)

Methods: Every fifteen seconds recorded reaction measurement from the injection of the H2O2.

Observations: We found a variety of observations. In trial A, nothing really moved and when it did, it was slow. In Trial B, the results were similiar to the original.

Our enzyme did not change because our rate stayed the same as X went up.

0,0,0,0,0,.1,.2,.2,.4,.4,.4,1.1,1.3,1.5,1.5,1.8,2.0,2.2,2.2,2.3,2.4,2.6,2.8,2.8,2.8

Reaction Rate: 0.7 O2/minute

Trial 2
(Increased Temp)

0,.1,.4,.6,1.0,1.3,1.6,1.8,2.2,2.4,2.8,3.0,-,-,-,3.8,3.8,4.0,4.1,4.2,4.2,4.3,4.3,4.3

Reaction Rate: .8 O2/minute

Trial 3
(Increased Temp)

0,0,.2,.6,.8,1.0,1.4,1.6,1.8,2.2,2.4,2.8,3.2,3.2,3.2,3.2,3.5,3.8,4.0,4.0,4.1,4.1,4.2,4.2,4.3,4.3,4.3

Reaction Rate: .8 O2/minute

Our data shows that the reaction rate was slightly faster when the chemicals at higher temperatures. The amount of overall O2 volume was higher at the larger temp, however we only did one trial at room temperature, toconfirm this change we would need to do another trial at room temp. Our story is that the hightened temperature allowed for a faster reaction rate because the molecules were moving around faster. that's our story and we're sticking to it....for a while anyway.....

Rate of Oxygen produced:
Ex 1 (control):0.6 cc/min
Ex 2 (pH 2.0): 0.067 cc/min

Observations:
-Reaction rate significantly decreased.
-x(plateu value) significantly decreased.
Story- The pH level affects how the Catalase works.

Trial 1:
.2, .4, .8, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.0, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0
The rate of change is fairly constant for 4 minutes at an additional .2 cm for every 15 seconds. After 4 minutes it changes .2 cm for every 30 seconds until it stabilizes after 6 min 40 sec reaching 4.0 cm of oxygen in the tube.

Introduction:
This experiment demonstrates the effects of the enzyme Catalase on hydrogen peroxide.

Methods:
We were given a nicely set-up apparatus consisting of a ring stand and a Scholander respirometer. We had two vials one of which was a control vial and the other was the experimental vial. In the control vial we put in 0.5cc of H2O2 and 4.5cc of pH 7.4 buffer and in the experimental vial we first put in 1.5cc of Catalase and 3cc of the buffer. The two vials were attached to the respirometer and then 0.5cc of H2O2 was injected into the experimental vial and the small plug was pushed in and at the same time the oxygen syringe was slowly pulled up and different volumes of oxygen were measured for different time intervals. The methods are the same for both trial 1 and trial 2.

Observations:
Trial 1
Time/sec Volume O2
15 .2
30 1
45 1.6
60 2.2
75 2.7
90 3
105 3.1
120 3.2
135 3.2
150 3.4
165 3.4
180 3.6
195 3.8
210 3.8
225 3.9
240 3.9
255 3.9
270 3.9
. .
. .
. .
. .

Trial 2(performed twice)
Time/sec Volume O2
15 .2/.4
30 .9/.8
45 1.4/1.4
60 1.8/1.8
75 2.2/2.0
90 2.4/2.4
105 2.7/2.7
120 2.8/2.8
135 3.0/3.0
150 3.2/3.2
165 3.2/3.3
180 3.4/3.4
195 3.6/3.5
210 3.8/3.6
225 3.9/3.8
240 3.9/3.9
255 3.9/3.9
270 3.9/3.9
. .
. .
. .
. .

Conclusion/ThE StoRY:
Rate of Concentration= 1.6/2= 0.8cc of O2/min
Our experiment remained the same, thus observations remained similar and hence we conclude with our rate of concentration and alas, no remarks on enzyme behavior!!!

Our results from experiment two were:
DATA: .1, .5, 1, 1.5, 1.9, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.4, 2.6, 2.6, 2.6
Our data was collected over a period of three minutes. This experiment was the first trial of adding .40 H2O2 to the experimental mixture, which contained 1.50 ml of Catalase and 3.10 ml of 7.4 Buffer for a total volume of 5.00 ml.

Our results from the second trial of the same experiment were:
DATA: .1, .5, 1, 1.4, 1.8, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.6, 2.8, 2.8

In the first experiment the rate we computed over two minutes was 1 O2/minute. In the second experiment the rate we computed over two minutes was .9 O2/min. When we add less H2O2, we ended up with less O2 per minute, but our rate was the same in both experiments. This means that the rate is independent of the amount of H2O2 that is added. Our conclusion is that the rate is determined by the enzyme that is added. Since the amount of enzyme was the same in both experiments, the rate should stay the same. Since it did, our conclusion has been proven.

1.8, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.25, 3.3, 3.3, 3.35, 3.4, 3.45, 3.5, 3.55, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6

Experiment 4B:
(Experiment 4 was using a buffer of 4.01 pH instead of the previously used pH level of 7.4)
Trial 1: .2 cc after 15 seconds
Trial 2: .2 cc after 15 seconds.

In both of our trials for experiment 4, the brody shot up quickly, equalling .2 cc, but then stopped moving completely.

This made us come to the conclusion that the higher the buffer's pH is, the longer the reaction will run, and the lower the buffer's pH is, the shorter the time of the reaction. This may mean that the lower the buffer's pH, the less effective the catalase (the enzyme) is at breaking apart the peroxide.

Our rate = .2/15= .01333 cc/sec. However, this rate could be deceiving because while we took the first measurement at fifteen seconds, the oxygen had stopped moving before that.

Trial A: (at room temperature)
.2, .4, .8, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.0, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0
The rate of change was fairly constant for 4 minutes at an additional .2 cm for every 15 seconds. After 4 minutes it changed .2 cm for every 30 seconds until it stabilized after 6 min 40 sec reaching 4.0 cm of oxygen in the tube.

Our rate between 1 and 3 minutes was 0.80 O2 per minute.

Trial B: (at heated temperature)
test #1
.3, .8, 1.3, 2.0, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.6, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.8, 4.9.

Our rate between 1 and 3 minutes was 0.90 O2 per minute.

test#2
.2, .8, 1.4, 2.0, 2.5, 2.8, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.4 4.6, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.0, 5.0

Our rate between 1 and 3 minutes was 1.05 O2 per minute.

** Our average rate of O2 per minute for Trial B was 0.98***

Discussion:
With higher temperature the rate of the O2 per minute was greater than the rate of the room temperature by a difference in rate of 0.18 O2 per minute.

The control trial involved 1.5cc of the Catalase, 0.50cc of the Hydrogen Peroxide, and 3.00cc of the buffer. The readings were taken every 15 seconds.

Our control set of data was as follows:

.4, .8, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.2, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, ~3.2, 3.2, 3.2,

3.3, 3.3, 3.4, 3.4, 3.4

Our next trials involved 0.6cc of Hydrogen Peroxide, 2.9cc of the buffer, and the enzyme remained constant at 1.5cc. The rate from our first trial (for minutes 1-3) was 0.7cc/minute of oxygen; the rate from the data set below with the increased amount of Hydrogen Peroxide is 1cc/ minute. Our data for the second set was as follows:

.3, 1.0, 1.8, 2.4, 2.8, 3.2, 3.5, 3.7, 3.9, 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6,

4.7, 4.8, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.2, 5.2

Based on our scientific observations, we have concluded that increasing the amount of HP added to the enzyme increases the rate at which oxygen converts to a gas. NOTE: Although the time is different on each of these trials, we feel that it is not really legitimate to say that the amount of HP affects time as well because our first trial was shorter than the control.

Summary of Data from Trial 2 (with same substances, but chilled):
Volume of Oxygen: .2, .2, .6, .8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 1.8, 2, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.4, 2.6, 2.6, 2.8, 2.8, 3.0, 3.0, 3.0, 3.2, 3.2, 3.2, 3.3, 3.3, 3.4, 3.4, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6, 3.7, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 3.8, 3.8, 3.8,3.8, 3.8
Rate of Reaction: .3 mL of Oxygen/minute

Summary of Data from Trial 3 (with same substances, but chilled):
Volume of Oxygen:.2, .4,.8, 1. 1.4, 1.7, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0, 4.1, 4.1, 4.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.2, 4.2, 4.2
Rate of Reaction: .3 mL of Oxygen/minute

Cooler temperatures mean slower molecules. Thus, when all the solutions were chilled, their slower molecular movement accounts for the drop in reaction rate. Rock on.

Experiment #1:
All measurements were taken at 15 second intervals.
.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4, 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.2, 3.2
The solution reacted for 4 full minutes (240 seconds).

Experiment #4c:
3.00cc of pH 10.4 buffer was added to the original experiment.
All measurments were taken at 15 second intervals.
.6/.6, .8/.8, 1/1.2, 1.3/1.4, 1.6/1.7, 2/2, 2.2/2.3, 2.4/2.6, 2.7/2.8, 2.9/3, 3.1/3.2, 3.2/3.4, 3.4/3.5, 3.5/3.6, 3.6/3.8, 3.7/3.9, 3.8/4, 3.8/4.1, 3.9/4.2, 4/4.3, 4/4.4, 4.1/4.4, 4.2/4.4, 4.2, 4.2
The solution reacted for 375sec/345sec.

When a higher pH was added to the experiment, the solution reacted for a longer time. The rate of reaction was also higher. In the original solution, the rate of reaction was .4 O2/min. The average rate for the experiment with the added pH was .692 O2/min. The higher pH level is condusive to the reaction; it helps remove more oxygen for a longer amount of time.

Volume Gas reading every 15 seconds (ml)
Experiment 1: 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.4, 1.6, 2.0, 2.2, 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.4, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6
rate volume O2/min (0-2mins): 1.3
rate volume O2/min (1-3mins): 0.8
rate volume O2/min (1-4mins): 0.633

Experiment 3 increase in amount of calalase
3a: 0.6,1.4,2.0,2.4,2.8,3.1,3.2,3.4,3.5,3.6,3.7,3.8,3.8,3.8,3.9,4.0,4.0,4.1,4.2,4.2,4.2,4.2

rate volume O2/min (0-2mins): 1.7

3b:
0.4, 0.8, 1.4, 2.0, 2.4, 2.7, 2.8, 3.0, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.2, 3.4, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6, 3.6

rate volume O2/min (0-2mins): 1.5
rate volume O2/min (1-3mins): 0.7

3c:
0.8, 1.6, 2.2, 2.6, 3.0, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.1, 4.1, 4.2, 4.2, 4.2

rate volume O2/min (0-2mins): 1.7

An increase in the amount of calalase yielded an increase in the rate of production of O2 gas. It did not yield more O2 gas.

Trial 2 (less enzyme):
.2, .3, .4, .6, .8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.9, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0
total time: 8 minutes 15 seconds
Rate from minute 2 to minute 5: .6 O2/minute

Trial 3 (less enzyme):
.1, .2, .3, .4, .6, .75, .9, 1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 1.9, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.3, 4.3
total time: 8 minutes 45 seconds
Rate from minute 2 to minute 5: .66 O2/minute

Trial 4 (less enzyme):
.0, .1, .2, .4, .5, .6, .8, 1.0, 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.05, 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.45, 3.6, 3.6, 3., 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.0, 4.0
total time: 9 minutes
Rate from minute 2 to minute 6: .56 O2/minute

Experiment 1

Initials Base Line Rate Exercise Rate

KC 54 78
SL 72 110
KA 70 128
MH 74 118
KE 68 122

Experiment 2

Hypothesis:
We hypothesized that if a person would hold their breath, their resting heart rate would be lower than when breathing normally.

Data:
We used MH as our lab rat, particularly because she had a really strong beat. We recorded her resting heart rate while breathing normally 3 times before we recorded the heart rate while she held her breath. We then did another trial where MH breathed normally just to make sure her heart rate hadn't dropped while breathing normally.

trial 1 (breathing normally)
94
86
84

trial 2 (holding breath)
64
68
64

trial 3 (breating normally)
92
93
90

Conclusions:
Because MH's heart rate dropped while she held her breath, the obvious conclusion is that breathing makes the heart beat faster. Therefore, the process of respiration requires oxygen and a faster heart beat.

We ran a couple of trials to test the effects of different influences on heart rates. First, we experimented with the effect of laughter on heart rate. We found that the heart rate didn't vary overall, but it spiked when the subject laughed. This may be due to the motion caused by laughing. Next, we experimented with the effect of raising an arm over the head on heart rate. The heart rate quickened slightly, along with an increase in pressure. However, the heart rate was not significantly affected by either of these changes.

After exercise
Sarah 136 beats per min.
Heather 152 beats per min.
Margot 146 beats per min.

Sarah after being "scared"- There was no effect on her heart rate after Grobstein screamed. Her heart rate stayed the same.

Heather held her breath for thirty seconds. Her heart rate increased to 96 beats per min. but the pressure decreased.

Margot thought sad thoughts for thirty seconds. We showed her a sad picture, thus making her heart rate slow down to 80 beats per min.

Our story about heart rates is that they increase or decrease depending upon both physical and emotional stimuli.

Any sort of heightened stimulation requires a higher heart (more oxygen) because internal functions are in a more active state- for example, there is more going on in your brain, you blush, you sweat, stomach gets tight, you laugh....etc. By the same logic, a relaxed state , or a conserted effort to lower the heart rate, should have been sucessful in slowing the functions. However, the conditions of the experiment were less than ideal, random, noise, movements and other exterior stimulants and distractions most likely played a role in theresults nd the abiity to concertrae on specific emotional or mental states.

Base Rate:
Virginia-> 94
Yarimee -> 82
Jen -> 70
Joanna -> 80

After 2 min of rigorous exercise
V-> 102
Y-> 150
Je->96
Jo->96

Hypothesis:
-Increases with exercise because of the need for more oxygen.
-Increases due to need to rid body of carbon dioxide.

Holding Breath
Virginia -> 144
Jen -> 64

Emotions
Joanna-> when told to imagine a happy scenario heart beat increased
Virginia-> when told to imagine a frightening senario heart rate increased a very small amount.

Food for thought:
-Maybe caffein and nicotine affect heart rate?
-relaive body health affects heart rate? (prior Knowledge)

Hypothesis: A person's heart rate varies from its base rate due to activity (eg. exercise), emotion (eg. fear) etc.

Observations: A converter and a computer program called SuperScopeII was used to measure the heart rates at different stages for 30 seconds of three human subjects and then the different measurements were recorded.

AVG. RESTING HEART RATES:
Roma: 92 beats/min
Melissa: 83 beats/min
Adrienne: 91 beats/min

HEART RATES AFTER VIGOROUS EXERCISE:
Roma: 154 beats/min
Melissa: 156 beats/min
Adrienne: 252 beats/min

HEART RATES AFTER A PARTICULAR EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Roma (after Melissa pinched her hand HARD!!): 111 beats/min
Melissa (after thinking happy thoughts of going home): 96 beats/min
Adrienne (after trying very hard to think sad thoughts): 111 beats/min
Adrienne (after practising yoga breathing): 87 beats/min
Melissa (after holding her breath): 105 beats/min
Roma (after letting her head hang upside down): 87 beats/min

Conclusion: A person's heart rate does indeed vary from its resting stage with changes in physical activity or emotional state of mind. As physical activity is increased more oxygen is required, hence the heart rate increases to allow for that. As for emotional state, depending on a particular emotion a person's heart rate may increase or decrease from normal. Yoga breathing and letting one's head hang upside down causing the blood to rush to it decreases heart rate while holding one's breath increases it. For further research one can look into changes in heart rate after consumption on different levels of nicotine, caffeine, alcohol etc. That should provide an interesting perspective on the effects of different chemicals in the blood system on a person's heart rate.

The Scientists: Emily S., Maggie S.-W., Chelsea R., and Laura B.

Observations:

Heart Rate (in beats per minute)

Hypothesis: We all agreed that we thought our heart rates would increase after exercising. When coming up with a hypothesis for what would happen to our heart rate when we held our breath, however, some of us thought that heart rate would increase and some of us thought that heart rate would decrease.

Putting it all together: According to the observations made by the class, our hypothesis that heart rate would increase after exercise appears to be true. However, we could not really conclude anything based on our observations of heart rate while holding one's breath. We measured our heart rate while holding our breath for 30 seconds, and some of our heart rates increased and the others decreased, so we cannot really conclude anything. Those of us who thought that heart rate would decrease while holding our breath, thought that because we thought that heart rate was dependent on oxygen intake and when you stop taking in oxygen (i.e.: hold your breath) your heart rate should decrease. Those of us who thought that heart rate would increase thought that because we thought that the heart would pump faster because the heart would try to get all the remaining oxygen in the lungs distributed to the body in an attempt to start the breathing process again.

Our base heart rates are as followes:

MS- 98 (just came from badminton)
HAM- 72
WSSC- 72
DGL- 84 (fasting for last two days)
CLP- 78 (drank coke)

Exercise:

MS- 146
HAM- 102
WSSC- 128
DGL- 178
CLP- 152

Hypothesis: Caffine will increase heart rate, as it is a stimulant.
Caffine:

MS- control 101

HAM- 76 (weaker beats)
WSSC- 82 (stronger beats)
DGL- 96
CLP- 92 (stronger beats)

Massage:

MS- 88

Thinking happy thoughts:

CLP: 88 (after coffee)

Laughing:

CLP: 128 (after coffee)

In conclusion, we feel that caffine increases heart rates, massage decreases, and so does thinking happy thoughts. Laughing we feel was affected by the movement of the hands as well.

THE END. yummy cooooooffeeeeeeeeeeeee:)

Test Cross

	MOTHER Xw X
F X A T H Y E R	XwX (wild)	XX (wild)
	XwY (white)	XY (wild)

Our next experiment examines double trait flies in comparison to the wild type mate. We first bred a purple-eyed, cossveinless female with a wildtype male. Our results: 2 images; 528 wild type females and 493 CV males. Purple eyes is a recessive trait and CV is carried on the x chromosome of the female. We cross that generation and we got a 3:1:3:1 ratio of wild type to purple eyes to cross veined to purple eyed cross veined.

The female will always contribute the following traits: ++, +CV, p+, p CV. The male will contribute one of two sets of genes depending on whether the offspring is male or female. Is the offspring is female, he will either contribute +CV, or pCV. If the offspring is male, he will give either +Y, or pY. The Y trait here is essentially "empty" since it cannot carry the CV trait.

Scalloped winged: True Breeding
Wild Winged: True Breeding

Hypothesis:

Either wild winged or scalloped winged will be dominant. (regardless of sex).

One female Scalloped winged and One male Wild winged: all female offspring are wild winged and all males are scalloped. In the second generation males and females both had equal proportions of wild and scalloped winged.

One male Scalloped and One female wild winged: all offpring are wild winged in the first generation and in the second generation all females are wild winged and all males are equally split between scalloped and wild winged.

Conclusion:
Dominance is sex related in this case of scalloped versus wild winged fruit flies. This is due to the fact that some genes are located exclusively on the X chromosome and there is no counterdominant gene on the Y chromosome. Because females have 2 X chromosomes and males one X and one Y, then whatever gene is on the X (scalloped) will be dominant in males because there is no counter gene on the Y chromosome. Also, the female flies with wild prove that scalloped is recessive, since they have both scalloped and wild genes. Finally, a female with two scalloped is not lethal, merely guarentees that her son will be scalloped.

we tested aristapedia antennae and dichaete wing alignment. we have been testing both of these characteristics together and separately in males and/or females for the last two hours. we have figured out that both traits are lethal homozygos, meaning that they cannot truebreed because there can never be a homozygos aristopedia or a homozygos dichaete. any fruit flie that is aristapedia or dichaete is heterozygos. the problem is that these traits are only lethal homozygos in females. because they are only lethal in females, the genes for the aristapedia and dichaete are in the x chromosome. because the genes are both on the x chromosome, they cannot be separated, except in the case of cross-over when the chromosome splits.

our results were as follows:

m(ArD) & f(++):
1:1
of Ar:D

f(ArD) & m(++):
1:15-20:15-20:1
of ++:Ar:D:ArD

Then we crossed a wild type male with a purple-star-eyed female. From the first cross we got only wild type and wildtype with star eyes. we then bred the two wild/star-eyed flies together. What we recieved were wild/wild, wild/star, and purple/star in a ratio from 1.5:2.5:1. We were then confused because when we did the cross ourselves, the results were very different. We soon learned that we had a lethal combination in out genetic set. if the fly recieves two star-eyed dominant genes, then that fly cannot exist. Also, purple/wild type flies did not exhist. That's because both the gene for purple and that for star are on the same chomosome. These genes are linked, so there is something that makes this mix impossible, though Will never really explained what...

Observations:
Esophogus - thick epithereal layer, inside ring is composed of purple cells, cilia is present

Trachea -
thin epithereal layer, large lumen amount in the cell, also a layer of small purple cells.

Lung - resembles trachea in that it has a lot of lumen, a layer of purple cells, evident oblong cells in the epithereal layer that stretch from one side of the layer to the other.

In conclusion we found that our hypothesis was right. Since teh trachea and lung both function to get air to teh blood stream, they had very similar structures.

We decided to explore cells of the liver, kidney, and lung. We wanted to observe the similarities and differences in the cells and the higher assemblies of cells and how they relate to the function of the organ.

Our hypothesis was that the cells and their organization would be similar in each of the organs because we believed that their functions were closely related in responsibility of delivering materials to the blood.

We looked at the three differnt slides and discovered that at first glance, each of the organs looked pretty similar. Our observations on a more detailed cell level, however, showed us that the liver and kidney cells were of similar size and make-up. The nucleus took up approximately half of the cell size. Whereas the appearance of the lung cells reminded us of the liver and kidney cells they were noticably smaller than the other cells.

Although the cells seemed to be physically similar, the spatial organization of the liver, kidney, and lungs were quite different. The liver cells were organized in rings/clumps. The kidney cells were arranged in long strings with more lumen than in the liver cells. The lung cells were placed in long, twisty strings and the lung had the most lumen of the three slides.

From these observations we conclude that the lumen plays a key role in the function of the lung. The empty space provides room for the oxygen that enters the lung each time an individual inhales. However, the lumen found in the kidney and liver would not serve the same purpose. Therefore, the lumen is not a similarity that can connect the functions of these three organs. Perphaps similarities of the individual cells are what link the purposes of the liver, kidney, and lung.

Small Intestine:
Cross section appeared to be tubular in shape - with a band of muscle fibers or tissues around the outside of the tube, and finger-like extensions reaching into the empty space (lumen). The fingers were very long and had high concentration of cells in them.

Large Intestine:
Cross section appeared to be only half of what we assume would be another tube. The fingers were shorter in length and close together. The fingers had more cells in them than in the band on the outside.

Comparasion:
Band is thicker in the large intestine, with the finger extensions shorter in length and set closer together than the small intestine. The small intestine fingers were longer than the large intestine, but had a larger concentration of cells in the fingers. Because food is processed in the small intestine before it travels to the large intestine, we think that the high concentration of cells in the large fingers of the small intestine serve to absorb the nutrients from the food. The large intestine also absorbs whatever nutrients haven't been absorbed in the small intestine, but basically serves to turn the food into waste, since all the nutrients are gone. Therefore, the large intestine doesn't need the long fingers and high concentration of cells to absorb the nutrients the way the small intestine does.

Heart cell:
Unlike the tubular appearance of the intenstines, the heart slide lacks the large pockets of lumen. What lumen we could see was very long and stringy, and blended in with the muscle fibers of the heart. There seemed to be a more even distribution of cells throughout the cell, rather than in concentrated areas.

So, the testes. Singular, testis. There were many chambers which the cells organized themselves into, which, depending on the section we looked at, looked like rings or tubey things. Naturally, those were all made up of cells. It was interesting that because new sperm is created every 70 days (information courtesy of Wil), unlike the ovaries, where eggs come prepackaged for life, we could see cells dividing in the testes. In some cells in the chamber linings, we could even see the individual chromosomes, which looked like sausages. Within the chambers, there were big masses of "furry things," which, it turned out, was sperm. Sperm tails, to be exact. Really, this is what does it for Grobstein. He said so.

Okay, so maybe the spinal cord lacks the excitement of the ovaries and the testis, but it is still pretty important. The cells are really tightly packed together- this is why a small impact on the spinal cord greatly affects the rest of the body. Also, since the spinal cord is vertical, a cross section only shows basically tiny circles. The basic function of the spinal cord is to transport information and the organization of the cells reflects this.

The cells in the spinal cord are really different from those in the reproductive organs. This is because so many different stages of the reproductive process have to be accomadated by those cells for the organs to perform their function. However, all of the cells in the spinal cord have the same basic function, they specialize in transmitting information.

Sarah Tan- testis
Heather Price- ovaries
Margot Rhyu- spinal cord

The kidneys are where blood is filtered for different things, such as salt and water. So the cells are probably set up in this way (tubular fashion) to allow liquid to pass by so it can be filtered.

The Liver had a similar structure, in that there were tubular openings. From prior knowledge we know that impurities, such as alcohol, are filtered and broken down in the liver. This could account for the similarities in shape and organization, the similar functions.

We also looked at a crossection of the aorta as comparison. there was a big difference in the way the cells looked and were organized. In the aorta, the clumpy and more scattered, with blood vessels (some of different sizes) spread throughout.

We studied three organs: Small intestine, large intestine, and skeletal muscle. The questions we were asked are:

1. # of cell types/tissues?
2. arragement of tissue within tactic organ?
3. Can an organ be formed from the cells of another?

Small intestine
3 types of cells:
outer layer- very elongated, thin, smooth muscle to help move food
middle layer- space between cells, lumen, spongy looking
inner layer- concentration of nuclei and spaced out

Large intestine
3 types of cells: similar to structure of small intestine cells
Overall make up of them took up a larger area, they're larger, hence large intestine.

Skeletal muscle
one type of cell but it did look like there might have been connective tissue. It appeared smooth and thin.

Discussion:
Small and large intestines appeared to have the same types of cells. The only major difference was that the large intestine's cells took up greater space. It appears that the cells of the small and large intestines could make up one another. The skeletal muscle cells appeared to be the same type of cell as the outer layer of the large and small intestine. This is probably because the outer layer is smooth muscle that aids in parastolisis.

We looked at the small intestine vs. the large intestine, and then looked at the lung.

Small intestine: We found about 6 or 7 different cell/tissue types. The cells were more densely packed toward the outside of the cross section, and toward the middle they got less dense, and then in the very middle, there was a bunch of blank space (lumen).

Large intestine: We found about 6 different cell/tissue types. The cell arrangement was pretty much the same as the small intestine, but the less dense cells toward the middle were more stringy.

Lung: We found about 8 different cell/tissue types. The cell arrangement is VERY different from that in the intestines. There is no blank space (lumen) in the middle, rather there are smaller blank spaces spread throughout the sample we looked at. The cells look very different from the intestines' cells as well.

Comparison: The intestines seemed pretty similar, but since they are separate in our bodies they probably can't replace each other. The lung cells looked totally different and therefore could not replace intestine cells.

We examined different organs taken from various organisms for the classification of different cell types. The experiment was carried out with the help of a simple microscope. Our hypothesis is that all of the organs examined would have same types of cells since all these different organs work together to carry out the many bodily functions.

At first, we looked at a section of pig liver cells. Clumps of cells which looked like they were the same kind of cell could be seen along with lumens. Perhaps one reason for the existence of many lumen is the function of the liver which is to channel out impurities from the bloodstream.

Next, kidney cells were observed. Elongated, elliptical and tubular cells were seen along with lumen which had larger surface areas than the lumen in the liver cells. The function of the kidneys is to filter the salt and water from the bloodstream and an arrangement of longish-shaped cells could account for this function.

Cells from the cardiac muscle in the heart were then examined. The arrangement in this organ is very different from the cell arrangement in the other two organs previously observed. The lumen is arranged in a stringy longitudinal way. The cells are longitudinal as well and are tightly packed. This is probably to enhance the function of the heart, since such narrow passageways would regulate blood flow and balance the pressure of blood flow as well.

We found out that the cells in the different organs were not the same after all and the reason would be that they have different functions and even if the functions are carried out harmoniously, they are still different functions being carried out by different organs.

1. # of Cell Types/Tissues
Trachea=4-5
Esophagus=3-4
Lung=3-4

2. Arrangement of tissues w/in entire organ
Trachea=4 layers; cartillage type cells to help keep structure rigid and open for air, more lumen than esophagus.
Esophagus=muscular layers, darker layers around lumen, outside shredded layer.
Lung=mostly spongey layer that looks perforated, a lot of air. Oval longer shapes in the spongey layer, thick dark layer around lumen, tiny dark spotty layer around lumen.

3. Can one organ be formed from the cells of another?
No! If the esophagus was made from Trachea cells, it would not be able to perform peristalsis which would result in choking and suffocation. The trachea must be rigid to prevent choking and allow air to flow continuously. The lung tissue must be expandable to allow the influx of air.

3a. Are they made of different types of tissues? Yes! Rigid vs. Muscle vs. Airy !

Ovaries
a. outer lining cells which resemble the cells in the testes
b. inner lining cells present directly around the egg cell which are the same kind as the outer liner cells but located in a different place
c. egg cell with a membrane
function: outer and inner liner cells protect and contain egg cells. the outer cells form a cushion around the egg to protect it from destruction.

compare:
the lining cells of the testes and ovaries seem to be simiar and perform a similar function- protecting the reproductive cells

Lung
a. many of the same type of smaller cell with large, round lumen gaps in between groups of cells
b. pink, spongy-looking groups of blood cells present in clumps throughout the other cells.
c. there are blood vessels throughout the lung cells
function: the cells form gaps in between for the purpose of flexibility and being able to hold oxygen. lungs need to expand and contract to take in air.
the blood vessels and blood cells are present because blood flows through the lungs to become oxygenated.

Can one organ be formed from the cells of another?
From looking at the cells, we noticed a lot of similarities, but we think cells are specialized to organize themselves in a certain pattern depending on what organ they make up. As a result, cells from one organ can't rearrange themselves to form another.

Testes: There are three different kinds of cells we observed in the testes. The first kind, oblong in appearance, seem to be spread between the main cell groups. These cell groups are themselves made up of two kinds of cells. One of these forms a boundary for the cell group; the other is contained within the group. It's like one of those balloons with confetti inside. (See Figure 1.1.) You know. The balloon and the confetti make up the "cell group," but the balloon is made up of one kind of "cell" and the confetti is made up of another kind of "cell." The second cells, which are the balloon cells, are sort of rectangular, with the nucleiaeouii toward the outside. The confetti cells are actually sperm cells, some of which appear different since they regenerate every 70 days. they are basically little spikes of color with bluriness around them. ha ha! and so, we conclude that the testes have three different types of cells.

Fig 1.1: A confetti filled balloon. The confetti would be one kind of cell, and the balloon would be another.

Ovaries: The ovaries are very special to us. We have them, after all. (One of us also has testes, but we're not going to tell you who. Guess.) The structure of the cells within the ovaries is similar to that of the testes. We have determined that there are indeed three different types of cells contained within these wondrous little organs. The first type (which resembles the first type described in the testes) is also oblong in nature, with a stringy-seeming consistency and visible nucleeeeeaauoui. There is another balloon-like structure with cells that form the "balloon" and cells that form a sort of "toy" inside. (See Fig 1.2.) (IT'S A BOY! but it's actually a girl. ovaries. get it?) The cells in the middle have four layers. The outside layer looks like a bunch of nucleaeauai, possible cells that will eventually become fully-formed egg cells. The next layer is like the shell, containing the "egg white" and the "yolk" inside of it. (The nucleus is the "yolk," the "egg white" is the "stuff" surrounding it.)

Fig 1.2: A balloon with toys inside. Imagine it with only one toy. The toy would be one kind of cell, and the balloon would be another.

Heart: The outer layer of the culture is made of of small, dark cells. Inside this boundary, there is mostly one kind of cell, which has a rather indefinate form and are all irregularly shaped. They all seem to be "flowing" in one direction. There is a "chamber" in the heart full of blood cells, a third type of cell. These "chambers" are bound by the same type of cell that bounds the whole culture (the small, dark ones). Thus, we conclude that the heart has three clear different types of cells, probably more.

Fig 1.3: A heart. (Not anatomically correct.)

Pig liver: At least magnification there appear to be two different types of cells. There appear to be purple veins intersecting the pink portion of the cells. The smaller of the two (orange colored cell) seems to be surrounded by the bigger (pink colored cells) appearing as pistol surrounded by petals.
After increasing the magnification by one level, there appear to be three differnet types of cells: The original pink cells, the orange cells in the middle and other smaller pink colored cells separating the orange and pink cells from each other. They fit in perfectly into the mold. It is possible that this is just a lumen filled up with somthing other than cells. At this magnification the size differences become clearer and the small orange cells in the middle are visibly smaller compared to the others than we first assumed.
After increasing the magnification by another level, there appear to clearly be no more than two differnet types of cells: The pink cells surrounding the orange centers. The pink mass inbetween the two, that we thought might be another type of cell, has turned out to be white instead and a clear lumen.

Kidney, non-med: At least magnification there appear to be three differnet types of cells. There are big pink masses that look like cells, orange cells pulled in oval circles and smaller pink cells that have lumen in their centers.
At greater magnification there seem to still be three different types of cells but the arrangement becomes clearer. It seems that the cells are within each other starting with the small pink ones that at this magnification look like thumb prints with a white hole in the middle, the next circle are the orange cells and these are in turn surrounded by the huge pink mass we discribed earlier.
At even greater intensity the orange mass we assumed to be another type of cell resembles blood vessles instead. We believe now that there are only two different types of cells in the kidney. There is a light pink mass that is clearly a cell type (with white lumen all throughout the mass) and a deeper pink colored cell type that is stringy.

Spinal cord: At least magnification there appear to be three different cell types. There is a cell type in the middle that is surrounded by a great space of nothing. Further out, there is a cell type that is shaped like a butterfly. This cell is surrounded by a mass of less intense pink almost orange color. This massive cell type is of oval shape.

At greater magnification there appear to be three different types of cells. There is the small pink cell in the middle surrounded by lumen, the dark pink cell type and the pink cell typ on the outside. The second cell type from the inside is very dense compared to the outside cell type is spaced out with little "buds" connected by longer cells of the same type.

We believe that it is possible to form one organ from the cells of another organ. There were some cells in the liver that look like they could be closely related to the cells of the kindey and vise versa. But, in comparing the liver or kidney cells to the spinal cord cells, it is more than apparent that the spinal cord cells are completely different. Whereas the liver and kidney cells were boxish of different shapes and sizes, the spinal cord cells were bunched, almost as if being "baby's breath." We think that the budding is conducive to transfering information, but we would need more testing to be positive.

Testes:
The sample provided us with a cross section of the many tubes that make up the testes. There seemed to be two types of tubes, with some cells within a tube and empty tubes.
There were five types of cells we identified in the testes:
1) The "divider cells" as we called them, formed a divider between the two type of tubes. These cells were streaky and surrounded the main tubes.
2) The first type of tubes (the ones which contained another type of cells), irregularly shaped, generally bigger than the other tube cells.
3) Sperm cells, the cells within one of the types of tubes. We were able to indentify the flagellum of the sperm.
4) The border of the sperm-filled tubes were of a different type, many of which had chromosomes in the process of replicating.
5) The final type of cell was another type of tube that was not filled with anything. Rather, these cells were in the midst of mitosis AND meiosis, whoa. These were developing sperm cells, and therefore look like a different type of cell.

Spinal cord:
"The spinal cord looked stupid" - Erin Myers
"I wish we had tails" - Will Carroll
The cell was ovular with an x-shape of a different cell type and a lumen space in the center, with a border of similar cells to the x-shape.
Two kinds of cells:
1) The cells not in the x-shape are spongey and irregularly shaped.
2) The cells in the x-shape and along the border are "super small" and more densely packed in a longitudinal pattern.
There are also vein-like things running through the less densely packed cells that oringinate in the center of the cell.

Pig liver: At least magnification there appear to be two different types of cells. There appear to be purple veins intersecting the pink portion of the cells. The smaller of the two (orange colored cell) seems to be surrounded by the bigger (pink colored cells) appearing as pistol surrounded by petals.
After increasing the magnification by one level, there appear to be three differnet types of cells: The original pink cells, the orange cells in the middle and other smaller pink colored cells separating the orange and pink cells from each other. They fit in perfectly into the mold. It is possible that this is just a lumen filled up with somthing other than cells. At this magnification the size differences become clearer and the small orange cells in the middle are visibly smaller compared to the others than we first assumed.
After increasing the magnification by another level, there appear to clearly be no more than two differnet types of cells: The pink cells surrounding the orange centers. The pink mass inbetween the two, that we thought might be another type of cell, has turned out to be white instead and a clear lumen.

Kidney, non-med: At least magnification there appear to be three differnet types of cells. There are big pink masses that look like cells, orange cells pulled in oval circles and smaller pink cells that have lumen in their centers.
At greater magnification there seem to still be three different types of cells but the arrangement becomes clearer. It seems that the cells are within each other starting with the small pink ones that at this magnification look like thumb prints with a white hole in the middle, the next circle are the orange cells and these are in turn surrounded by the huge pink mass we discribed earlier.
At even greater intensity the orange mass we assumed to be another type of cell resembles blood vessles instead. We believe now that there are only two different types of cells in the kidney. There is a light pink mass that is clearly a cell type (with white lumen all throughout the mass) and a deeper pink colored cell type that is stringy.

Spinal cord: At least magnification there appear to be three different cell types. There is a cell type in the middle that is surrounded by a great space of nothing. Further out, there is a cell type that is shaped like a butterfly. This cell is surrounded by a mass of less intense pink almost orange color. This massive cell type is of oval shape.

At greater magnification there appear to be three different types of cells. There is the small pink cell in the middle surrounded by lumen, the dark pink cell type and the pink cell typ on the outside. The second cell type from the inside is very dense compared to the outside cell type is spaced out with little "buds" connected by longer cells of the same type.

We believe that it is possible to form one organ from the cells of another organ. There were some cells in the liver that look like they could be closely related to the cells of the kindey and vise versa. But, in comparing the liver or kidney cells to the spinal cord cells, it is more than apparent that the spinal cord cells are completely different. Whereas the liver and kidney cells were boxish of different shapes and sizes, the spinal cord cells were bunched, almost as if being "baby's breath." We think that the budding is conducive to transfering information, but we would need more testing to be positive.

http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/intro.html

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Laboratory/Biome/

http://curriculum.calstatela.edu/courses/builders/lessons/less/biomes/introbiomes.html

Biomes vary with location because of a multitude of environmental differences, such as temperature and precipitation. These factors are directly related to longitude and latitudes, as well as topography.

Different communities are describes most generally in seven different biomes.
1. coniferous forest: temperature = -40-20 C / precipitation= 300-900 mm/year
2. temperatue decidous forest: temp= -30 - 30 C / precip = 750-1500 mm/year
3. Desert: temp= -3.9 -38 c / precip= 250 mm/year
4. grassland: -20 -30C / precip 500-900 mm/year
5. rain forest: 20 -25 C / precip= 2,000-10,000 mm/year
6. shrubland: 20- 10 C / precip= 200-1,000 mm/year
7. tundra: -40-18C / precip= 150-250 mm/ year

Biomes are subject to change due to deforestation, global warming, and climate change. A typical progression is from forest to grassland to desert.

We chose to compare the different aquatic biomes on Earth. There are two main categories: marine and freshwater.

Marine: Covers 75% of the Earth. Is comprised of oceans, coral reefs and estuaries. Within the ocean there are different zones (each zone supports a different series of flora and fauna).
The tidal zone has a lower diversity because the wave action disrupts the area from becoming a stable habitat. Shorebirds will come to feed on what is washed up. The shorebirds will vary on what part of the world you are in: in Alaska, you might find bird like puffins which are adapted to the cold water, while in Florida a heron or egret will be easier to find.
The pelagic zone (farther out into the ocean) is home to whales, dolphins and other large marine species (as well as lots of plankton!)
The benthic zone hosts primarily bacteria and fungi.
The deep sea, or abyssal zone, is very cold yet supports a great biodiversity near mid-oceanic ridges (thermal rifts which heat the nearby water, as well as provide nutrients).
Closer to the surface, coral reefs surround islands in the tropics. They are home to many different plants and animals. A single reef can support a diverse population.
The final marine category is estuaries, which is where rivers meet the ocean. The mixture of fresh and salt water creates an enviornment for unique species of trees, birds and other wildlife.

Freshwater: Must have less than 1% salt content, and is divided into ponds and lake, streams and rivers, and wetlands (this last category is controversial).
Ponds and lakes have a lower biodiversity because they are isolated environments. Within a single pond or lake there will be many species of fish, birds and amphibians. Species will vary from one lake/pond to another. Fish species vary because they cannot transplant themselves between isolated bodies of water (they [or their eggs] must be carried by birds). The birds will vary from lake to lake because of their mating habits and climatic differences. You're not gonna find a flamingo in Minnesota.
The next sub-division is streams and rivers. These offer more diversity, but it depends on the type of stream (meandering, braided, etc.) and how turbid the water is. If the water is full of sediment, it will block sunlight (therefore block plant growth), but will offer habitats for fish like catfish. The diversity of a stream/river will increase towards the center of the channel. Along the edge, other wildlife will venture into the water to drink or eat.
The third category is wetlands. Wetlands are home to acquatic plants known as hydrophytes. Wetlands are placed in neither the freshwater nor the marine category, since both saltwater and freshwater wetlands exist. This difference alone will vary the biodiversity between each wetland.

a few links:
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/aquatic.html

http://www.worldbiomes.com/biomes_aquatic.htm

Hot and Dry:
"Canopy in most deserts is very rare. Plants are mainly ground-hugging shrubs and short woody trees. Leaves are "replete" (fully supported with nutrients) with water-conserving characteristics. They tend to be small, thick and covered with a thick cuticle (outer layer). In the cacti, the leaves are much-reduced (to spines) and photosynthetic activity is restricted to the stems. Some plants open their stomata (microscopic openings in the epidermis of leaves that allow for gas exchange) only at night when evaporation rates are lowest. These plants include: yuccas, ocotillo, turpentine bush, prickly pears, false mesquite, sotol, ephedras, agaves and brittlebush.

The animals include small nocturnal (active at night) carnivores. The dominant animals are burrowers and kangaroo rats. There are also insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds. The animals stay inactive in protected hideaways during the hot day and come out to forage at dusk, dawn or at night, when the desert is cooler."

Cold Desert:The winters receive quite a bit of snow. The mean annual precipitation ranges from 15-26 cm. Annual precipitation has reached a maximum of 46 cm and a minimum of 9 cm. The heaviest rainfall of the spring is usually in April or May. In some areas, rainfall can be heavy in autumn. The soil is heavy, silty, and salty. It contains alluvial fans where soil is relatively porous and drainage is good so that most of the salt has been leached out.

The plants are widely scattered. In areas of shad-scale, about 10 percent of the ground is covered, but in some areas of sagebush it approaches 85 percent. Plant heights vary between 15 cm and 122 cm. The main plants are deciduous, most having spiny leaves. Widely distributed animals are jack rabbits, kangaroo rats, kangaroo mice, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, and antelope ground squirrels. In areas like Utah, population density of these animals can range from 14-41 individuals per hectare. All except the jack rabbits are burrowers. The burrowing habit also applies to carnivores like the badger, kit fox, and coyote. Several lizards do some burrowing and moving of soil. Deer are found only in the winter.

Comparision:
We found that there were many similar animals in both hot and cold deserts which led us to conclude that the harsh conditions and ground brush found in both deserts may make the similarties; such as the kangaroo rats and burrowing predaters. Differances amongst the two desert creatures may be attributed to the homogenous climate of the hot and dry desert to the variations in hot and dry to the cold and moist. This is demonstrated by teh deer that exist in the cold desert during the winter times. We found that these deer most likely leap down the surrounding mountains - as cold deserts are nestled betwixt mountain ranges- when the climates of the mountain become too cold on the tipey tops. Thus, the location of the desert affects whether or not the desert is cold or hot, and also affects teh surounding locations such as teh mountains aroudn the cold desert.

Web Sources

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/ biome/forests.html#boreal

http://www.borealnet.org/overview/whatistheboreal.html

http://www.borealnet.org/overview/whataretheproblems.html

http://www.borealnet.org/overview/whycare.html

In the boreal forest temperatures are generally very low and little precipitation in the form of snow. The plant population is composed of "cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves like pines, firs, and spruces. The lack of floor vegetation, apart from fungi, is because the canpoy of these trees allows low light penetration so it's difficult for floor or "understory" plants to grow.
The boreal spatial arangement is effected by humans logging the trees for paper and drilling for oil.
Before people tree arangement looks like:
aghe;wagn;asn
a;genaoighwaoi
nage;owingaeio
angeo;inae
After people:
B B B B
B B B B
B B B B
In this "emerald halo" there are five thousand species of fungi. This is possible because they are able to grow without so much sunlight. The presence of fungi relates to the fauna population that in addition to woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hairs, munks, and bats, includes squirrels that eat the fungi and spread the spores.
Obviously there is reason behind the spatial array of the boreal forest.

in our search, we found that "biomes" are basically the different types of ecosystems found on the earth. the most inclusive list we found is as follows:

rainforest, tundra, taiga, desert, temperate, grasslands, rivers & streams, ponds & lakes, wetlands, shorelines, temperate oceans, and tropical oceans.

examples for each and explanations:

rainforest - there are actually 2 types of rainforest, temperate and tropical. we will focus on tropical as it is the more well known of the two. some characteristics is that they are warm and moist and very green with a large array of diverse plant and animal life. in fact, half of the earth's plant and animal species are found in the tropical rainforests of the world.

tundra - characterized by being fairly stark and barren, year-round. short cool summers, long cold winters. plants grow low to the ground. animals breed fast and are well adapted for the extremely cold conditions, and many animals even hibernate during hte winter months

taiga -this biome stretches across a large portion of the world. in fact, it is the largest biome in the world. winters are cold. summers are warm. lots of conifers grow here. snow, cold, and a scarcity of food make life very difficult, especially in the winter. some taiga animals migrate south, others go into hibernation, while others just cope.  the taiga is characterized by having larger numbers of hte same plant and animal species - i.e. much less diveristy than a tropical rainforest

desert - There are 2 main types of desert, hot and cold. both get very small amounts of precipitation. Only difference is that cold deserts main form of precipitation is snow, and for warm deserts it's rain. deserts have more plants and animals than people think. in fact, deserts are second only to tropical rainforests in the variety of plant and animal species that live ther

temperate - temperate climates are those in which there are defined seasons with significant rainfall, just slightly less than that of a rainforest. These areas are also characterized by the presence of deciduous forests and significant coverage by wooded areas. Bryn Mawr, and much of the United States are located in temperate biomes.

grasslands - Grasslands are typified by low, ground-covering plant life, such as grasses and shrubs. Grasslands are generally located in plains, valleys, and other flat landscapes. The Midwestern United States praries are a kind of this grassland environment.

rivers & streams - Rivers and streams are one of the primary habitats for aquatic life on earth. Rivers and streams are the homes and breeding grounds for many species of fish, plantlife, amphibians, and others. These waterways are also vital to the suvival of many land species for drinking and bathing.

ponds & lakes - Ponds and lakes are also the homes of countless fish and animals, but are also hugely important for aquatic plantlife. The stillness of the pond and lake setting is ideal for kinds of algae and others to form on the surface of the water. Again, these bodies of water are important for the survival of surrounding land species, as well.

wetlands - Wetlands are marshy landscapes that can range from swamps to bogs. Wetlands are key in the sustenance and reproduction of many bird species, as well as some tall grasses and plants. Wetlands also play a key role in the maintenance of the ecosystem in that they often act as a kind of filtration system for the waters before they move on to rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, and oceans.

shorelines - Shorelines are another aquatic habitat for many shellfish, insects, and grasses, among others. The Shoreline is an environment that is always changing, and quickly. Therefore, all species who live in this habitat are mobile, or firmly attached to the earth or rocks, such as deeply rooted grasses, and barnacles.

temperate oceans - Temperate oceans share seasons like those familiar to us. These marine habitats are home to both the largest and smallest species known to man.

tropical oceans - Tropical oceans are most frequently characterized as the homes of coral reefs. These bodies are located in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean.
http://mbgnet.mobot.org/

Each of these ecosystems has a very distinct array of lifeforms because the climates have affected the evolution of these species. They've adapted to contend with the different challenges posed by each of these habitats.

We were interested in comparing the different types of forest biomes. 3 different forests exist, Tropical, Temperate (Decidious), and Boreal (Tiaga). We concentrated on Temperate and Boreal forests with the hope of understanding more about biomes and biological communities.

According to http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/,
"the world's major communities, classified according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular environment"

In other words, different animals (and plants and insects) live in different environments. The type of climate and vegetation highly influence the type of organisms inhabiting a biome.

http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/biomes.html suggests that different animals live in different areas because of the weather conditions. Animals must adapt to live in their environment - after living in one particular climate for so many years, their systems become accustomed to the fluctuations of one particular biome.

In fact, all of the changes that differentiate one type of biome from another are directly responsible for the varying organisms living within. For example, Boreal forests do not let a lot of sunlight reach the understory layers of the forest; therefore, only plants thta do not require large amounts of sunlight can live there. It is a codependent environement: the plants live in a particular biome because of the climate, and the animals live in a biome because of the plants. Therefore, the climate is responsible for all living organisms within a biome.

Below are the key differences between a Temperate forest and a Boreal or Tiaga forest.

Temperate:
*well defined seasons with distinct winter
*soil is very fertile
*canopy is moderately dense and allows some light to penetrate through to the forest floor
*flora: about 3-4 species for every square kilometer.
According to http://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/:
*Fall Colors: In the Fall, the number of hours of daylight decreases. This causes some plants and trees (called deciduous) to stop producing chlorophyll (a green pigment that converts sunlight into chemical energy) and eventually lose their leaves. During this time, these leaves turn brilliant colors, ranging from red to orange to yellow to brown.
*Soil: The soil in the deciduous forests is quite fertile, since it is often enriched with falling leaves, twigs, logs, and dead organisms.
Layers of the Temperate Deciduous Forest: There are five layers (also called zones or strata) in the temperate deciduous forest. These include the:
* Tree stratum, the tallest layer, 60 -100 feet high, with large oak, maple, beech, chestnut, hickory, elm, basswood, linden, walnut, or sweet gum trees.
* Small tree or sapling layer - short tree species and young trees.
* Shrub layer - shrubs like rhododendrons, azaleas, mountain laurels, and huckleberries.
* Herb layer - short plants.
* Ground layer - lichens, clubmosses, and true mosses.

Boreal or Tiaga
*short, moist, warm summers, and long, cold, dry winters.
*soil is thin and acidic, is rocky and has deep gorges often frozen over with water.
*canopy is thick and allows almost no light to reach understory
*flora is comprised of only cold-tolerant evergreens
*taiga, also called a boreal forest or northern coniferous forest, is a cold woodland or forest. This biome span the northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Taigas are generally located south of tundras and north of temperate deciduous forests and temperate grasslands. The taiga is the largest land biome on Earth, covering about 50 million acres of land (20 million hectares); this is about 17% of the Earth's land area. Taiga is a Russian word for marshy pine forest.
*The taiga is characterized by a cold, harsh climate, a low rate of precipitation (snow and rain), and short growing season. There are two types of taigas: open woodlands with widely spaced trees, and dense forests whose floor is generally in shade.
*Taigas are relatively low in animal diversity because of the harsh winters. Some taiga animals are able to cope with the cold winter environment, but many migrate south to warmer climates during the winter and others go into hibernation.

Because of the temperate climate, fertile soil, moderate canopy, and sunlight, a plethora of animals and other organisms inhabit a Temperate forest. Whereas the Boreal forest has little sunlight and extremely cold temperatures, the organisms and animals living there are less in number.

Studying forests is very important for the advancement of mankind. Potential medicines and undiscovered plant speicies could exist. The trees seem to exist as a buggering agent for the ozone layer and the effect of global warming. And because all of the organisms within the forests have evolved together, the resulting biome is interdependent.

2.www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/

3.www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/Biobookcommecosys.html

4.www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/04/1/1_041_01.html

5.www.scu.k12.ca.us/pomeroy/1st/Animals.html

Groups of organisms live together because they are adapted to live with each other. An example of this is the food web, where organisms are interedependent and are adapted to eat what is available to them. It is also important that the food web is not disrupted by one organism not being too overly preyed upon. Groups of organisms occur in different locations because of the limitations of their geography and because of their specific adaptations. Certain organisms depend on others with which they live to create the environment in which they need to survive.

Christine Traversi
Margot Rhyu
Sarah Tan

Desert Biomes
Desert Biomes are the final stage of a biome. Due to global warming and climate change. The Biome cycle starts with aquatic to forest, grassland, and finally deserts. Desert biomes differ according to location. There are four different types of deserts that vary in temperature and location.

Hot and Dry
temps on average range from 20-24c. They are located inthe lower latitudes of North America.

Semiarid
Temps on average range from 20-24c. They are located in the basins of America, for example in Utah. The Semiarid deserts are similiar to hot and dry deserts.

Coastal
Temps on average range from 13-20c They are located on the coast of chile.

Cold
Temps range from -2-4c. They are located in colder climates, such as Greenland. Cold deserts has precipatation due to snowfalls. As a result there are plant life and animal life as such as deers and rabbits. Opposed to the other 3 which contains lizards.

In general the mortality rate in desert Biomes are higher than Rain forest. In hot and dry deserts plants absorb and store water becuase there is a lack of rainfall.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/deserts.html

http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/biomes.htmlhttp://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/biomes.html

We decided to investigate the climate and environment of rainforests.
Tropical rainforests are complex ecosystems, which are made up of four distinct environments. These "sub-ecosystems" are referred to as levels. In each level, animals and plants have adapted to the existing environmental conditions. The different levels are: the emergent level, the canopy, the understory, and forest floor.
Tropical rainforests are spread over the Americas, Africa , Asia and the Caribbean with the largest portion found in Puerto Rico and Trinidad.
Lush vegetation, rainfall througout the year and a high temperature make the rainforest one of the world's most diverse ecosystems.
Rainforests are a product of planetary processes and are - in turn - contributors to the water and carbon cycles on which all life depends. Rainforests control climate by influencing wind, rainfall, humidity and temperature. They recycle water, oxygen and carbon which reduces soil erosion, flooding and air pollution.
More than 65 million years old, rainforests are the oldest major vegetation types on Earth. Fossil records show that the forests of Southeast Asia have existed in more or less their present form for 70 to 100 million years.
Certain environmental conditions must be present in order for the delicate balance of rainforest to be held intact. There must be substantial rainfall (at least 80 inches) of rain each year, but many rainforests receive in excess of 200-300 inches annually.
Because rainforests are in tropical areas, they have a very hot, wet climate. Temperatures can be above 24 degrees centigrade all year round and rainfall levels can be up to 2,400mm a year.
The soil in the rainforest is 4 inches deep with a layer of clay beneath, hence trees have shallow roots.
A variety of living organisms at all different sub-ecosystems exist in the rainforests. Tropical rainforests contain more than half of the Earth's plant and animal species, yet cover only about 7% of the earth's land surface. A typical forest in the United States contains from 5 to 12 different kinds of trees, while a typical rainforest may have over 300 different kinds. If the rainforests are destroyed, most of these plant and animal species will be lost forever. The different species of plants and animals along with microscopic living organisms co-exist in their own way in the rainforests. In just four square miles of some Rainforests you might find over 750 species of trees, 1500 types of flowering plants, 125 different kinds of mammals, 400 different birds, 100 reptiles, 65 amphibians, and a staggering number of insects. One quarter of today's pharmaceuticals come from Tropical Rainforest plants.
The Amazon Rainforest is the richest biological incubator on the planet. It supports millions of plant, animal and insect species - a virtual library of chemical invention. In these archives, drugs like quinine, muscle relaxants, steroids and cancer drugs are found. More importantly, are the new drugs still awaiting discovery - drugs for AIDS, cancer, diabetes, arthritis and Alzheimer's. Thus it is very clear that the rainforests are a major part of life on earth and all living organisms are dependent on this biome in some way or another.
Loss of these incredibly diverse forests would be a serious loss for people everywhere. The loss of thousands of acres of tropical rainforests is already causing serious local problems, including increased soil erosion and water pollution. As more deforestation occurs, the problems will increase.
People don't have the right to destroy the world's rainforests and other habitats for their own purposes.
IDEA: Further investigation can be carried out on the differences between tropical and temperate rainforests.

WEB REFERENCES:
http://www.animalsoftherainforest.org/map.htm
http://www.orecity.k12.or.us/ogden/BBBeck/TropicalRainforest.html
http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/CITE/rainforest_what.htm

The climactic charactetic he arctic are cold, windy temperatures, and often snowy biomes. Dry air, wind, and snow are part of the climate. 90% of the land area is covered with hardy, cold-and-dry vegetation. Animals that live in the Arctic are adapted to extreme conditions. Those with coats, have coats that thicken and change color to white in order to be camoflouged with the snow. Many animals also hibernate.

ArcticAnimals

There are four different types of deserts. They vary in
temperature and location.

Hot and Dry
20-24c. Lower latitudes of North America.

Semiarid
20-24c. Basins of America (Utah). Similiar to hot and dry deserts.

Coastal
13-20c. Coast of chile.

Cold
-2-4c. Colder climates (Greenland). Cold deserts have precipitation due to snowfalls. Plant life and animal life exists.

Plants and Animals have adapted to these extreme desert climates. The lack of water creates a survival problem for all desert organisms, so they have evolved behavioral and physiological mechanisms to avoid excess heat, dissipate heat, retain water, and acquire water.

To avoid heat , many animals (especially mammals and reptiles) are active only at dusk and again at dawn. Likewise, many animals are completely nocturnal, restricting all their activities to the cooler temperatures of the night. Bats, many snakes, most rodents and some larger mammals like foxes and skunks, are nocturnal, sleeping in a cool den, cave or burrow by day.

To dissipate heat , many desert animals are paler than their relatives elsewhere in more moderate environments. Pale colors may be seen in feathers, fur, scales or skin. Pale colors not only ensure that the animal takes in less heat from the environment, but help to make it less conspicuous to predators in the bright, pallid surroundings.

Some animals retain water by burrowing into moist soil during the dry daylight hours (all desert toads). Some predatory and scavenging animals can obtain their entire moisture needs from the food they eat (e.g., Turkey Vulture) but still may drink when water is available.

Acquiring water in the desert is a challenge. Kangaroo Rats, for example, live in underground dens which they seal off to block out midday heat and to recycle the moisture from their own breathing. They also have specialized kidneys with extra microscopic tubules to extract most of the water from their urine and return it to the blood stream. Much of the moisture that would be exhaled in breathing is recaptured in the nasal cavities by specialized organs.

Thousands of animal species exist in the desert. Obviously, the extreme conditions have created a need to evolve and adapt their needs to the environment. Desert animals are characteristic to this environment because if these animals were relocated, they would have no need for these specializations. Their adaptations would be detrimental in a different environment. If a desert animal was relocated to a tropical environment, retaining water might result in drowning. Pale coloring that helps to dissipate heat in the desert would make the animal a target in a darker, greener biome.

Plant Life in Deserts
Most desert plants are succulents, meaning they store water to survive the dry, hot, desert climates. One of the most well known species of desert plants is the cactus. The Saguaro Cactus has grows in a dry hot desert climate. It's waxy skin helps it keep water in. When it rains, the Saguaro Cactus soaks up water and holds it in its ribs. The ribs on the plant expand to absorb a lot of water. The plant itself does not need a lot of water to survive. It depends on heavy winter precipatation. During dry periods, the Saguaro Cactus uses water it has stored. The Saguaro has a very special root system. It has two sets of radial roots, a thick set about one foot long, and a thinner set which is often as the same length as the height of the cactus itself. The Saguaro, like many other species of Cactus, has 3-4 inch spines to protect it from predators. In addition to protection from predators, these spines help cool the outer skin of the plant, as well as redirect the wind and insulate the outer skin of the cactus. The Saguaro typically flowers at night when it is cool. Animal and insect species that live in the same environment are: long-nosed bats, bees, wasps, ants, butterflies, and some small rodents, like pocket mice.

For More information:

Mojave Desert
Desert Plants
Desert Animal Survival
Desert Biomes

Organisms live in characteristic environments. Desert Life is related by certain adaptations to their environment. Therefore, if life from other climates and conditions were relocated to the desert, they would not survive.

In investigating websites on the ecosystem known as the tundra, we found observations which show organisms which are interdependent and existing in specific, cooperative communities. This system of organisms, like other systems which we have studied, exhibits a quality of being substantially influenced by the physical conditions in which it exists. The thick protective fur pocessed by the musk ox of the tundra is one instance of the relationship between organisms and the physical conditions under which they live and have evolved. It's fur is composed of two layers: an outer protective layer and an under layer which is nearly waterproof (The Tundra Biome). Examples of the interdependence of organisms includes the presence of lichen in the tundra, which then provides sustinence for caribou and musk ox (Tundra Plants).
The teperature in the tundra tends to range from -40 to 18 degrees celcius (Earth Observatory Tundra). The ground is permanently frozen -- permafrost (The Tundra Biome), and thus soil in a form useable by plants only exists in small clumps, like in cracks between rocks. The bacteria that can survive in such conditions in turn enables specific low-growing shrub-like plants to grow.
It can be infered that, as tundra organisms have developed under similar conditions (i.e.: those of extreme cold and little moisture) they have also developed to be dependent upon those things which are available under those conditions, leading them to evolve into interdependent communities.

Biomes: Arctic Tundra vs. Grasslands
Brought to you by: Laura Bang and Adrienne Wardy

For more exciting information about these biomes, go to Biomes.

One of the best known deserts in the world: The Sahara Desert, Africa

Geographical features: Shallow basins, highest point is 11,204 feet, lowest .....point is 436 feet, 25% sand sheets and dunes, underground waterways.

Weather: short to medium length dry and humid conditions.

Two major climates:
.....dry tropical climate: mild and dry winters, hot and dry season, 1 annual temperature cycle, 5 in annual rainfall.

.....dry subtropical climate: annual high temp ranges, cold winters, hot summers, two rainy seasons, 3 in annual rainfall at most.

Vegetation: varied, sparse, include grasses, shrubs, and trees that are .....adapted to unreliable precipitation and excessive heat

Animal life: varied and numerous, gerbil, jerboa, Cape hare, the desert hedgehog, dorcas gazelle, dama deer, Nubian wild, anubis baboon, spotted hyena, common jackal, sand fox, Libyan striped weasel, and the slender mongoose. Variety of birds also exists.

The largest block of ice you'll ever see: Antarctica

Geographical features: 95% ice, 70% of the earth's fresh water is locked .....within this ice

Weather: coldest temp -129F, high winds

Climate: less than 2 in annual precipitations, this makes it a desert.

Vegetation: current tundra cannot have vegetation, fossilized plants have been found from 2 million years ago.

Animals: exist in water and on coastline, includes macaroni penguins as well as other species, albatross, elephant seals and leopard seals as well as other seals, killer whales and right whales as well as other whales, seabirds.

Conclusion: Both the Sahara and Antarctica are technically deserts because they each get very little annual precipitation. However, as noted above, the organisims that live within each desert are obviously different. In the Sahara desert, reptiles are the most obvious difference because being cold blooded, they need to remain in an area that remains warm. The other birds and mammals are found in and around oasises for the most part. The Sahara also consists of two subclimates because of the span of latitude in relation to the equator. Antarctica never has a significant difference in distance from the equator to change the climates.

Antarctica, being almost a complete sheet of ice, is obviously much colder and as a result all of the plants and animals that might live in that climate have a thick layer of fat or other natural protection from the cold. Therefore, the zebra that lives in the Sahara could not live in the arctic and the penguin would probably overheat and die in the Sahara.

Animal Live
The Living Africa
Nature: Antarctica-Life In The Icebox

Characteristics

Tropical
-greatest diversity of species
-occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes 23.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees S.
-two seasons are present are rainy and dry
-daylight is 12 hours with little variation.
-temperature is on average 20-25° C and varies little
-precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, with annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm.
-soil is nutrient-poor and acidic
-canopy in tropical forests is multilayered and continuous, allowing little light penetration.
-flora (plantlife) is highly diverse, one square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different tree species. Examples include trees (mostly evergreen, with large dark green leaves), plants such as orchids, bromeliads, vines, ferns, mosses, and palms.
-fauna (animal life) includes numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and insects

Tropical forests can be further subdivided based on seasonal distribution of rainfall:
evergreen rainforest has no dry season.
seasonal rainforest has a short dry period in a very wet tropical region
semievergreen forest has a longer dry season
moist/dry deciduous forest has a dry season that increases as rainfall decreases

Temperate
-occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and central Europe
-have well-defined seasons with a distinct winter
-moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months
-temperature varies from -30° C to 30° C.
-precipitation (75-150 cm) is distributed evenly throughout the year.
-soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter.
-canopy is moderately dense and allows light to penetrate, resulting in well-developed and richly diversified understory vegetation and stratification of animals
-flora is characterized by 3-4 tree species per square kilometer. Trees are distinguished by broad leaves that are lost annually and include such species as oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple, basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and spring-flowering herbs
-fauna is represented by squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear

Temperate forests can be further subdivided based on seasonal distribution of rainfall:
moist conifer and evergreen broad-leaved forests have wet winters and dry summers
dry conifer forests dominate higher elevation zones, have low precipitation
mediterranean forests have precipitation that is concentrated in winter, with less than 1000 mm per year
temperate coniferous have mild winters, high annual precipitation (greater than 2000 mm)
temperate broad-leaved rainforests have mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation (more than 1500 mm) evenly distributed throughout the year

Boreal
-represent the largest terrestial biome
-occur between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes
-found in the broad belt of Eurasia and North America, two-thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada
-seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers and long, cold, and dry winters
-growing season in boreal forests is 130 days
-temperatures are very low
-precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm annually
-soil is thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic
-canopy permits low light penetration, and as a result, understory is limited
-flora consist mostly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir, and spruce
-fauna include woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats

Conclusion
Groups of organisms live in the same areas and are associated with each other because they adapted to live in similar environments. Organisms, depending on their specific adaptations, depend on each other and their environment in different ways. The food chain in an example of how animals depend on each other, and plants, in order to live. By looking at the specific information about the three different types of forests, it is apparent that different types of animals and vegetation are found in different environments.

Sources
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/forests.html

The Game of Life, at http://serendipstudio.org/complexity/life.html

The Prisoner's Dilemna, at http://serendipstudio.org/playground/pd.html

(Pseudo)-Altruism, at http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Biology/Bio101/prot/pseudoaltruism.html - thanks to Ted Wong - REQUIRES Internet Explorer instead of Netscape

Some additional models to play with (also require Internet Explorer):

• Altruism, at http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/Altruism
• Cooperation, at http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/Cooperation

First, we ran a control run from which to base our hypothesis about ant survival.
Cooperative ants (red): 50
Selfish ants (blue): 1
Probability of altruism: 1
Fidelity: 0

The two populations crossed at 50 time units. The red ant population crashed, while the blue went up to 967 members and reached an equilibrium.

From this we hypothesized that if we increased the initial number of red ants that it would take longer for the blue ant population to overtake them.

Red ants: 100 individuals
blue ants: 1
probabilty: 1
fidelity: 0

The results were the same as the initial experiment, but this time the maximum ant populations were 1019. (first the red, then the blue) Our hypothesis was proved incorrect!

We then messed around with the other controls, to see what the effect would be on the population (we wanted to try and keep the red ants alive).
All experiments were conducted with a 100 red: 1 blue ant ratio

First, reduced the probability of altruism from 1 to 0.
The red ants grew to a population of 988. The blue ants had a small population at first, but died out completely by 300 time units.

Next, we changed the probability to .5 from 1.
The red increased greatly to 1029, then began to decrease rapidly. The blue ants increased and crossed the red ant population at 100 time units. The red ants flat-lined at 130 time units. The blue stabilized at 1029 individuals.

Then, we changed the fidelity to 1 from 0, and put the probabilty back to 1 as well.
The red ants increased to 1018 and stay there. The blue rises slowly, but doesnt get very high. They decrease and eventaully die at 170 time units.

We then changed the fidelity to .5 and kept the probability at 1.
The red went up to 955 individuals. They start to decrease (blue rises) at 100 time units. The two cross at 160 time units. Red ants are gone by 254 time units. The blue ants stabilize at 955 individuals.

Next, we tried the fidelity at 1 and the probabilty at 0.
The red ants increased to 962. The blue ants stay low and die before 100 time units.

This time, we put the fidelity at 0 and the probabilty at .1 units
The red increased to 984; around 250 time units, they dropped. The blue began to rise. Reds decrease some more at 319. Blues rising fast at 400 time units. The blue and red ant populations cross at 502 time units. They stay together (coexisting for a short while) before the red drops and the blue continues to rise (slowly).

Last test, we put both the probability and fidelity at .5 units
The red ant population increased to 987 ants. It stays there until 160 time units, when the population starts to go down. The blue ants stay low until 160 when they start to rise. The populations cross at 210 time units. The red ants are all dead by 400 time units and the blue have levelled off around 990.

When the altruism probabilty was lowered, the red ants were more likely to survive, as well as when the fidelity was increased (this allows altruistic ants to gain energy from each other).

GO ANTS!

Sarah Tan
Yarimee Gutierrez
Margot Rhyu

We suveyed the different types of strategy involved with the game. Below is an outline:

A. You can cheat the whole time.
You will win only by one coin
B. You can cooperate the whole time.
You will tie
C. You can alternate clicking cooperate and cheating
You will tie
D. You can alternate cheating and cooperating
You will tie
E. You can cooperate the whole time, then anticipate when the "Wizard" will end the game and then jump ahead and cheat just before the game ends. This is risky, and you still only win by five points.
F. You can choose to cheat first since you will automatically benefit by either one coin or five.

After the first time cheating, you can either chose to tie (by going back to cooperating) or only increase by one for the rest of the game (by cheating). If you cheat for the rest of the game and only increase by one, the computer dubs you as "Flirting With An Inconcievably Foul Fate" and therefore not be a very nice person. However, you never get ahead by being nice. (You never fall behind either).

Ultimatley, you can only win by 5 points and the computer will tell you that you can do better. But you really can't.

For this lab we came up with the following hypothesis:
(As postulated with The Prisoner's Dilemma:) "The best strategy for a given player is often one that increases the payoff to one's partner as well."

First, we explored The Prisoner's Dilemma by playing the game with four different strategies:

Strategy #1: We competed each time.
The outcome: We had 14 coins, serendip had 9.

Strategy #2: We cooperated each time.
The outcome: We had 36 coins, serendip had 36.

Strategy #3: We cheated the first time and then cooperated for the remaining times.
The outcome: We had the same number of coins that serendip did.

Strategy #4: We cooperated until the last time when we cheated.
The outcome: We had 41 coins, serendip had 36.

This leads us to believe that pure cooperation is not MORE beneficial than our other strategies.

However, since pure cooperation, in this instance, is defined as your ability to increase your oponents ability and not just your own, we began to question the nature of altruistic action.

This led us to the exploration of the (Pseudo) - Altruism Game.

We started out with equal numbers of selfish and altruistic ants, an .5 altuistic probability, and .5 fidelity probability.
The altruistic ants were extinct around 128 time-intervals.

When we kept the alruistic and fidelity probabilities at .5, increased the altruistic population to 100, and decreased the selfish population to 10, the altruistic ants became a minority at 90 time-intervals and were extinct at around 319 time-intervals.

When we increased the fidelity level to 1, kept the probability level at .5, and set selfisth and altruistic ant levels at 50...
the altruistic ants maintained a population comparable to the selfish ants.

Therefore, we disproved our hypothesis. We conclude that it is impossible for life to exist, and therefore evolve, with purely altruistic actions.

The Prisoner's Dilemma showed us that alruistic actions can be beneficial.
However, our experiences with the (Pseudo) - Altruism experiment prove that pure altruism will inevitably lead to extinction. Since life cannot be substained without some selfish acts, it is doubtful that any action in life is void of selfishness.

Alternate cheating/cooperating you can earn a maximum of 5 pts. in two rounds if Serendipity does the opposite of your move.

Cooperate each time, earn maximum of 6 pts. per 2 rounds and then cheat the last round to earn 5 pts. in the end. If both start to cheat you reduce pts. to only one per round.

This only works because you are able to predict the computer's move. Also it is necessary to know when the last round is which is a chance because it is whenever the wizard is tired of playing.

Ok. In the prisioners dilemea we must look at the probability of profit. Serendip will mirror your actions, but always starts off cooperating. If you both cooperate, you will each gain 3 coins. If you both cheat, you will each gain one coin. If one of you cheats and the other does not, the cheater gets 5 coins. Simple, right? Here are the possibilites (excluding random cooperation/competition):

1. It seems as if cheating is the most profitable way, but if you cheat you will gain 5 coins. Serendip will then mirror your actions. You will then only gain 1 coin each time unless you decide to cooperate while serendip cheats and come off even in the end.

5 coins
6 coins
7 coins

2. Then maybe cooperation is best. If you do this, you will continue to get 3 coins each and stay tied throughout the entire game. Your overall coinge will be higher than the previous example, but the hightest?

3 coins
6 coins
9 coins

3. Wouldn't it be better to cooperate up until the last moment, when you cheat serendip? This way you would have gotten many more coins than if you had cheated throughout and an extra 2 coins at the end when you cheat.

3 coins
6 coins
11 coins

Which is the best strategy? Is there a best strategy? In the game it seems that you should cooperate until just before the end. The problem with this is that we do not know when the end of the game is. We are not told until some limiting number is reached that we have reached the end of the game. Thus, this theory is not as good as it seemed initially. In real life it seems as if it might be the most profitable overall. However, we can not say that this is the best.

No matter how much life you start with, whether a small or large amount, the area will be populated evenly, then eventually kill itself out through overcrowding, and then will finally separate itself into separate, sustainable colonies of either three in a line or four in a square or diamond formation. For example, if every spot is populated, every spot dies out in only one time step. Also, if the player begins with isolated squares of four, no changes occur throughout the timesteps, because the colonies are already stable.

There needs to be a certain amount of red squares to supply the green squares with what they need to sustain life. When the green squares compete, only the fittest survive. The problem is that there are a limited number of resources (red squares) to go around no matter how many green squares there are. This gives the smaller, more isolated "colonies" a better shot at survival and sustainability.

The best conditions for life exist in the creation of small, isolated colonies in which there is minimal competition for the limited resources. In fact, this formation, which reconciles the competition versus cooperation issue, is the only viable option for continued sustainability.

If you begin with 50/50 selfish/altruistic
Altruism Probability (AP) = 1
Fidelity (F) =1
Results: Red took over after 400 units of time.

We repeated this test, and the blue held out for 500 units of time until they all died.

Next...
Population: 50/50
AP=1
F=.5
Results: Blue took over in 75 units of time

Population: 50/50
AP=.5
F=1
Results: Equal for a long time, then blue died off slowly but surely.

Population: 50 selfish/25 altruistic
AP=.5
F=1
Results: Both were steady, with blue higher than red until becoming even, finally red took over and blue died out.

Population: 50/50
AP=0
F=1
Results: Both red and blue rose quickly, but red died out slowly once carrying capacity was reached.

Our first test was successful (selfish died) because all of the reds were cooperating with eachother, while blues could not depend on eachother or anyone else. Whereas reds were able to support eachother and thrive!

In our second test, red ants would get fitness 3/4 of the time, and the blue ants were getting fitness 1/4 of the time, but the blue ants had an advantage because they never had to give up anything, whereas the red ants were supporting both blue and red ants.

Next, this was the same as the first experiment, but it took longer because altruism did not occur as frequently so the red ants were not cooperating as frequently, so they weren't benefitting as frequently.

In our fourth test, we started with fewer reds, so the process was much longer. Each state was prolonged because there were fewer ants to begin with.

Our final test was confusing, because the probabilty of altruism is zero, so noone is giving up anything or sharing, so there should be no advantage and no disadvantage. We expected red and blue to reach steady levels.

Our conclusion is that the only time red ants will win is if Fidelity is 1. The altruism probability just affects the amount of time it will take. Time is also affected by the population.

Trials and Tribulations of Altruistic Ants

Trial 1:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � 0
Outcome: All blue (Time: 126)

Trial 2:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � 0
Outcome: All blue (Time: 202)

Trial 3:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 0
Fidelity � 0
Outcome: Some blue, some red

Trial 4:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 100
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � 0
Outcome: All blue (Time: 100)

Trial 5:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � 1
Outcome: All red (Time:158)

Trial 6:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � .5
Outcome: All blue (Time: 200)

Trial 7:
Initial-selfish � 1
Initial-altruist � 50
Altruism-probability � 1
Fidelity � 0
SPATIAL STRUCTURE ON
Outcome: All blue (Time: 100)

All of this data suggests that pseudo-altruism (that is, "altruism" with 100% fidelity) may be the most conducive to domination by the pseudo-altruistic population.

We decided to play Pirate's Dilemma. First, we tried cooperating each round until the game was over. This resulted in a goodly amount of booty for both players. Then, we decided that cheating is cool, so we cheated until the game was over. Trusting serendip cooperated the first round, giving us 5 more coins-ha! Serendips, unfortunately learns quickly and cheated as well for the rest of the game. We then tried to cheat and then cooperate. Initially the computer cooperated and we cheated, then it cheated and we cooperated and from then on, we both cooperated. We've determined that the computer basis its decisions on what we did in the previous round. Finally, we determined the best way to beat serendip AND have a decent average is to cooperated for approx. 10 rounds, then stab the in the back- bloody landlubbers!!

We then focused on how many rounds we can play all cheating or all cooperating. We found a negligable difference of 1-2 rounds longer in games where we only cooperated. The average number of rounds when only cheating is 10.5, when only cooperating approx. 13 (one time we had 23, go us!).

Given these results, we determined that stabbing the computer in the back after the tenth round was most profitable. We also noted that if we were wrong and the game didn't end, we should continue cheating because, once betrayed, serendip doesn't trust us anymore.

In conclusion, although continually cooperating yields a better average and more coins on average, to beat serendip you must be a blue-blooded, bearded, bastard and cheat at the last minute- harharhar.

Expeditionary groups have been formed to undertake an initial survey of "plant" life on Nearer and Farther. Their goal is to try and determine the number of different kinds of plant life on each planet without prior presumptions that categories of plant life on Nearer and Farther are necessarily similar to those on Earth.

You are a member of one such expeditionary group. Your group must return with a scheme for categorizing plant life on the planet assigned that is clearly described and yields a definite quantitative result for numbers of kinds of plants on that planet. You may also want to consider why the planet contains the particular number of different plants you describe. Your findings will be presented at a conference on "Diversity in BioSystems: New Findings From Additional Cases", focused on the question of whether "diversity" is or is not a fundamental characteristic of living systems.

Some related readings:

• The Voyage of the Beagle, by Charles Darwin
  
• Charles Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle - Selections and Commentary
  
• Darwin's Finches
  
• Adaptive Radiation of Darwin's Finches, in the American Scientist
  

Grass:
-No stems
-Comes to a point
-Thin
-Grows close to ground

Trees:
-Produce leaves
-Have dark colored bark
-Have a trunk
-The largest group found
-Found five types

Shrubs:
-Half a knee to stomach height (5'8 ft. person)
-Had 3 to 49 leaves
-Had 2 to 12 parting branches
-No flowers or buds
-Scattered location
-Either oval or pointed extremeties

Leaves:
-Some have holes
-Different shapes and sizes
-Mostly close to trees

I. Ground Coverings (3) - direct ground coverage that varied in terms of color and texture
II. Low Proximity to Ground (9) - thick, diverse populations of low growing plants
a) Blade (1)
b) Leaf
i) Singular (1)
ii) Multiple
1) Smooth edged (5)
2) Jagged edged (2)
III. Medium Proximity to Groud (3) - branched entities greater than a foot from the ground
a) Spiked (1)
b) Elliptical (1)
c) Waxed (1)
IV. High Elevation (2) - vegetation greater than six feet from the ground
a) Smooth base/vertical branching (1)
b) Ridged base/horizontal branching (1)
Total Plant Types Found: 17

Again, while we recognize that this is not an all-inclusive list, this scheme provides a basis for the categorization of vegetation found in Nearer.

This system, the Planet Nearer, offered an example of the diversity which can be found in a given area in terms of energy sources and stage of growth. Both aspects are elements which attribute to the diversity and variation among the vegatation of the same type.

GROUP NEARER: Justine Patrick, Shafiqah Berry, Latoya Lavita, Vanessa Herrera

Criteria for plant description

Premise: All specimens observed are living plants.

Shape, texture, and shape distinguished our observations.

Specimen # 1: Has attachments that are green star-shaped. There are two cylindrical shaped objects, they appear to be the same shape and size, indicating that they may be of the same species, but texture variations indicate possible reproduction, that is duplication without exact replication.

Specimen # 2: Amorphous cube, smooth top, rough and jagged sides, pattern of uniform discoloration, appears to be another specimen in and of itself. There is a possibility of it being an older version of specimen # 1, perhaps a fossilization of the cylindrical shapes.

Specimen # 2a: Green rug-like texture gets less green as the shape declines.

Specimen # 3: Broad brown surface has two parts interwoven with specimen # 1 into a symbiotic relationship.

Specimen # 4: Presented in an upright position, it's green, crisp, and easiest to break of all the specimens so far.

Specimen # 5: Similar to specimen # 1, but shape is not cylindrical. The shorter attachments are closer together and there are more of them. The extensions have pricklier attachments.

Specimen # 6: Appear to be from the same family, characteristic of having similar organisms growing on them, which may indicate an eco-system within an eco-system within the greater hierarchy of different systems.

What we have gathered from our overall findings is that plot of"land" we observed is a symbiotic eco- system supporting various life forms while itsef being supported.

Lab expedition to "Farther"

Observations:

I. Small (1 ft. and under) –
a. Rooted vs. Unrooted
b. Clustered vs. Unclustered
c. Green vs. Brown vs. Yellow vs. Red
d. Long, pointy, broad, branched
1. Leaves
a. tear shaped
b. jagged tear shaped
c. heart shaped.
2. No Leaves
e. Long, pointy, skinny
1. Leaves
a. round
b. reverse heart
c. jagged tear shaped
d. tear shaped
e. fuzzy
2. No Leaves

II. Medium (1-5 ft.)
a. Pliant vs. Non-pliant
b. Lowlying vs. Tall
c. Cluster/unclustered
d. Rough vs. Smooth bark
e. Number of branches/types of branches
f. Leaf Shape
g. Appendages: berries/none
h. Thorns/no thorns

III. Big (over 5 ft)
a. 1 person to hug vs. 1+ persons to hug
b. numerous branches vs. minimal branches vs. one big black metal branch
c. tear shaped vs. rigid tear shaped leaves vs. glove shaped

Conclusions:

There are approximately 37 species of plant life in the area we studied. There was a wide range in the size of plants. The reason for this diversity is to allow the different plants to take advantage of limited resources in different ways. The vertical occupation of space, as well as horizontal, allows plants to compete for light, air and space. The sizes cannot be assumed to follow a plant's time line (juvenile, adult, old) as that would be basing our judgments on the case on Earth. Because the period during which we studied these samples is an insufficient timescale to study growth, this remains an unacceptable assumption and thus, we must receive the grant for further observation.

The "Low-to-the-Ground" categorization describes vegetation that was less than six inches tall and it generally covered a large area of ground space. We broke this category into two sub-categories "leafed" and "leafless" based on the presence or absence of leaves. The leafed sub-category includes further sub-groups based on leaf quantity and shape. The leafless category is further divided into subcategories based on texture and size.

The "Low Branched" category refers to plant life with stems and branches that expand horizontally starting at ground level. On the stems were either leaves or needles. The leafed sub-group of low branched plant life was divided into Shiny, and Mat refering to the texture of the leaves and Tiny, refering to the relative small size of one variaty of Low branched plant life.

The "Extended Trunk" category refers to plant life with a thick tall trunk, whose branches expand horizontally. The extended trunk types are further subcategorized by the types of leaves which grow on their branches. They are star shaped leaf and tear drop shaped leaf.

The "Fuzzy Stuff" category refers to a unique type of plant life that spread out over a diverse array of surfaces includingother plant life and inanimate objects in the environment. The sub-groups were categorized onthe basis of color and texture.

The "Nasty Stuff" category refers to t he plant life that grows from other oragisms and is also less than 6 inches tall. The Nasty Stuff types are further subcategorized by its physical appearance. These types are "puffy", "shell like", "orange". A unique characteristic of this plant life is that one could see the immature and mature state of this particular organism.

The expeditionary force discovered five major groups of plant life and twenty-two minor ones in total.

Groundcover:
-groundcovering thinned as light diminished
-common disturbance of ground seems to coincide with a lack of ground covering
1) Long, thin, fibrous, green leaves:
-partially subterranean
-shallow roots
-pigmentation lessens near the roots
-variation within stalks (either 1 stalk or multiple)
-variation of height, but average of Romina's hand length
2) Single stalk with 3 round/oval leaves:
-symmetrical discoloration and veins
-grow in clusters
-edges are ridged
Below Waist:
1) Groups of branches with thicker stems and more leaves:
-only grew in 3rd (smallest) area
-leaves are almond shaped
-leaves have shiny, waxy texture on one side
-backside of leaves is lighter, duller, and has prominent stem through middle
-branches were thicker, brown, and sturdy
Above Eye-Level:
1) 5-Point Leaf:
-found on 3 of 4 above eye-level organisms in open area
-base of plant was brown, thick, with textured, apparently protective covering
-sturdier build
-irregular breaks in covering on one of specimens, which seemed suggestive of an unidentifiable, external force
2) Oval Leaf:
-only specimen with branches lacking foliage
-covering of stem was rougher and more textured than 5-point variety
-many branches were without foliage and were discolored

I. Ground Coverage
a. Plants that grow off of ground
1. Leaves
-grows in patches in dark areas
-grows more plentifully in sunny areas
2. Branches and Leaves
-Stem with one leaf
a. small heartshaped leaves
b. large elongated leaves
c. medium oval shaped leaves with stems growing out of middle of
patches
d. medium elongated and serrated leaves
-Stem with multiple leaves
a. stems with a few larger leaves
b. stems with many smaller leaves
c. stems with many smaller speckled leaves
d. stems with many leaves and fruit
b. Plants growing on the ground
1. Hairy looking
2. Blanket-like
a. fuzzy and darker colored
b. granular-looking and lighter colored
3. Leaf-like with red hairs
II. Plants taller than 4 feet
a. Shorter Plants - plants that branch closer to the ground
1.leaves
-smaller oval leaves with more leaves on each branch, darker color
-larger oval leaves with less leaves on each branch, lighter color
2. needles and fruit
b. Taller Plants - plants that branch farther away from the ground
1.star shaped leaves with spiney geometric pods
2.oval shaped leaves

Category 2:
Bladelike structure, no stem or trunk, vertical, grounded (3 sub categories)

Category 3:;
Free-floating, elongated round and flat. (5 sub categories)

We arrived at Planet Far and were overwhelmed by the diversity of life. In order to make sense of it all, we developed broad categories into which we grouped the subjects of our observations.

Realizing the magnitude of our task, we focused on distinguishing the different kinds of life close to the ground. The criteria for classifying our subjects as plant life include the implicated growth found in the various sizes and stages of life that particular subjects exhibited. They also were rooted in the ground signifying permanancy within their life cycle, thus exposing themselves to the elements.

We noted a variety of texture, shapes, sizes, and colors.

We divided the subjects into:

We found three different forms of strands: wide, narrow, and circular. Within these groups there were green and brown specimens, the green more moist and the brown more brittle.

We had eight different varieties of stems with colorful appendages.

We had a group of five different longer stemmed, rounded/oval large and flat shaped samples.

We had six samples with stemmed extensions off of their main shoot.

Bring it on! :)

We classifed plant life on Planet Farther based on four categories: number of leaf prongs, length to width ratio,
Upon discovering a new plant, we first counted the number of leaf prongs, categorizing these in groups of 1, 2-3, and 4 or more. After that, we looked at:
- # of leaves
- leaf shape (lobes and notches)
- leaf size ratios (length to width)
- leaf vein structure
- general plant shape and size (length to width/depth ratio)
- patterns of change in size and shape (tendency to get wider or narrower as height or length increases)
- # of branches, and branching tendency (# of branching nodes)
- Texture and changes in texture

Other criteria that we did not get to measure include:

-Root structure or what happens where plant connects to ground
- proximity to other plants like it
- # of plants per given distance (10 sq. yards)
- flexibility or rigidity, stability
- average size
- leaf thickness
- presence of seeds/flowers/fruit/spores/etc

For example, one plant we loooked at had one prong on each leaf, oval-shaped leaves with no notches or lobes, one central vein in each leaf with smaller veins branching from the central one, a total plant height of about 2.5 feet and width of about 3.5 feet, and about 30 main branches coming from the ground.

Our data:
Non-leaved plants: 1
1-prong: 11
2-3 prong: 3
4 or more: 5

Total plant species observed: 20

Discerning life on Planet Nearer was a difficult task indeed. We were able to uncover what we believe to be 22 different species of plant life, with several other objects which classified as inanimate.

Ground Growth [1-17 types]

Specimens 1-4: grew closest to the ground, like a blanket over the dirt.

1.looked and felt like felt and was a deep green color. next was an even 2.darker green with tiny ball shapes composing the covering.
3.light green and string-like.
4.light green and found in the far corner of the planet. felt like shag carpet.

Specimens 5-9: all specimens were less than two inches from the ground, and had visible stems, leaves, and were all green.

5.ovular leaf shape, and grew in clusters across the planet.
6.round leaf shape
7.spade shaped leaves
8.ridged shaped leaves, with five leaves per sprout, was also a darker hue of green than the other specimens.
9.ridged and covered with fuzz, three sections per leaf.

Specimens 10-11: blade like leaves protruding from the ground in clumps. Both types of clumps were green. In the far corner of the planet these clumps grew in a darker green and thicker, perhaps because of the favorable conditions in this portion of the planet.

10.this type of growth sprouted from the ground, and separated above ground.
11.this type of growth sprouted and separated below ground.

Specimens 12-17: ranged in height from 4-6.5 inches off the ground, most were a light green hue.

12.very thin with no visible leaves but perhaps seedlings sprouting from the weed.
13.growing close to the ground, with thin leaves.
14.taller than most weeds, with large leaves.
15.long, bottom, with leaves on top.
16.low growing, with many clustered leaves and visible seeds growing on the stalk.
17.long bottom, with spade shaped leaves on top. the leaves were shades of white, green, and purple.

Bushes [18-20 types]

Specimens 18-20:

18.thin, sharp leaves like pine needles. some berries spotted sprouting from the tips of some of these needles. they appeared to be underdeveloped. branch separated below ground.
19.shiny, ovular leaves. branches separated below ground, and were a ligher color.
20.light green matte finish leaves. there was a knotted, twisted trunk, with branches sprouting above ground.

Very Tall Bushes [2 types]

Specimens 21-22: About twenty foot tall, cylandrical base, branching out over the entire planet. Extensions of this species were noted to be growing both above and below ground surrounding the tree. Two types of this species were observed.

21.The base appeared dark brown and chunky, with leaves of a light to dark green hue. These leaves were five pointed. One section of the tree had brown leaves.
22.The base was smooth and a lighter brown. The leaves were tear drop shaped and of a medium green hue.

"Grass-like" plants:
-Long-stemmed grass
-Dry grass
-Thin/fine grass
-Regular
-Thick grass

"Trees"
-Maple (?) tree
"Other" tree

"Bush-like" plants:
-Big bush # 1 (smooth surfaced leaves)
-Big bush # 2 (x-mas, needle leaves), bush appeared 4 times
-Big bush # 3 (penny-sized, oval leaves), bush appeared 3 times

"Ground"-coverings, stemmed:
-Long-stalked w/stacked leaves
-Uni-leafed "weed" with rigid edges
-5-leafed with serated edges
-Uni-leaf, teardrop shape
-Mini-strawberry plant
-Three leaved clover
-Long, seeded, corn-like plant
-Tiny, muliple-leafed weed
-Plant with one, fan-shaped leaf
-Oak-like weed
-Tri-leafed plant with serated edges

"Ground"-coverings, non-stemmed:
-Moss

Our group was surprised to find the extent to which the plant life on "planet nearer" varied. With ground coverings, in particular, the number of different species of plant life found was extremely surprising.

Follow-up investigations should be undertaken with the same general objectives as the initial exploration but with the following additional recommendations in mind:

• To assure that the wisdom of various differing perspectives is maximized, investigators should distribute themselves into new teams.
  
• Each follow-up expedition should take one of the original reports as a baseline (a report in which at least one of the current expedition members participated in), and assess in terms of new observations both the adequacy of the observations in that report and the pros and cons of the classification scheme proposed. It is expected that there will be reasons for serious critique, and so each follow-up expedition should develop a new classification scheme that rectifies problems with the previous classification scheme, with a clear account of why the new scheme is believed to be "less wrong".
  
• All expedition follow-up expeditions are encouraged to take advantage of prior work aimed at getting less wrong about the diversity of plants on the earth, and consider the extent to which the resulting classification scheme is more or less wrong in classifying plants on their subject planets than the schemes developed entirely based on observations on those planets.
  

Relevant information about plant life on earth:

• Will Franklin's Plant and Fungi Key for Biology Courtyard
  
• Plant Systematics Collection, from the University of Wisconsin
  
• Plantae: Systematics, from the University of California, Berkelely
  

*We have addressed issues that came up in the first presentation of this system of categorization. The first element of the system that we tried to clarify was the size boundaries for each category. We have also considered possible alternative energy sources other than the seemingly dominant one. This is a seemingly simplified system of organization given that we have not been able to examine the internal features of each species.

Category 1: Immediate proximity to a surface, whether the ground or surface of another organism - a negligable distance from the ground - under 1/2 inch
A. spongey ground covering that spreads out moreso than growing up
B. plants that seem to derive energy from plants in Category 4
Category 2: Low proximity to the ground - from 1 inch to 1 foot.
A. single blade
B. leaf-like structure
1. singular leafed
2. multi-leafed
Category 3: Medium proximity to ground - from 1 foot 1 inch, to 6 feet
A. eliptical shaped needle-like leaf
B. spiked leaf
C. oval, smooth, waxy leaf
Category 4: High proximity - 10 feet and above
A. rigid base with horizontal branching
B. smooth, flakey base with vertical branching

Plants:
I. Green
A. Leaves
1. petal-like
a. single
~ star
~ heart
~ other
b. multiple
~ from-ground
~ from-branches
* diverge at ground level
+ shiny
+ matte
* diverge from trunk
+ star
+ tear-drop
2. Needle-like
B. No Leaves
1. fuzzy
a. dark green
b. light green
2. blade-like
II. Not Green
A. Shelf-like
1. orange
2. brown
B. Flaky
1. blue
2. white
C. Puffy

This expeditionary team followed-up on the research of the previous expeditionary force on planet Nearer. This group improved on the categorization methods by creating a hierarchy of differences among forms of plant life, whereas the previous group categorized plant life broadly according to similarity of features, without any linkage between categories.
The categories of the previous group did not relate the different types of plant life to one another. This group's categories, by contrast, are a coherent map of all plants on planet Nearer.

1 Not Green (Brown)
2 Fleshy mold (1)
2' Hard mold
1'Green
3 Algae: Lichen
3' Not Algae
4 No true leaves/small
4' True leaves/big
5 ferns
5' not highly divided
6 no fruit/prolific wood
6'flowering plants
**6.5 Clearly defined trunk (2)
**6.5' random assembly of branches (7)
7 parallel veins in leaves
7' floral veins (1)

- Found system of organization to be extremely helpful.
- Last week, without any prior knowledge, each group began by focusing on size of flora and fauna. However, we learned that size was problematic because a younger version of the same species may be mistaken for an entirely separate species due to observation. We felt an additional step was necessary, in order that, by default, size was incorporated into the schema. We eliminated the possibility of error based on age by focusing on the structure of the flora and fauna as opposed to the size alone.
- This classification is more efficient because it groups flora and fauna together on broader terms.

Based on observations made by the eyenad other senses, on Planet Farther, plants can be classified by size:
Big (taller than 5 ft)
Medium (above ankle but below waistline)
Small (below ankle).

By color: Green or Not Green

By function (whether they produce flowers, leaves, fruits or not).

By the shape and texture: description of the leaf-like structure, if it is present, (direction where the veins go (vertical and parallel, or horizontal/diagonal), smooth or rough), or sensory perception of the organism itself.

By location (where they grow- on the ground, on another organism, in the light, in the shade)

By characteristics of the stem: for example: brown and hard, none, green and frail.

What we found:

A mushroom-like thing: small, fleshy, easy to break, feathery, no fruits, leaves or flowers, brown (not green) , grows in the shade, frail, brown stem.

Big plant one: no fruits, no flowers, 5 pointed leaf-life structure, with diagonal veins, green that grow in the sunlight, has a stem like structure connected to the ground that is brown, rough, and sturdy). It sheds, and when it does, some of the leaves in the ground become discolored.

-An independent organism grows from the stem of big plant 1. It is whitish green and rough, very, very small without flowers or fruits. We put it in an independent category, although it is connected to Big plant 1.

Big plant two: produces fruits - a cluster of samll green, hard berries, no flowers, long, pointy, green leaf with diagonal veins, grows in the sunlight, thick, brown, rough stem (different in texture than Big plant one).

Grassy-like plant: small, green, does not produce fruits or flowers, grows in sunlight and moderate shade, parallel fibers growing from north to south.

Medium-flowery-green plant: grows in molch-like shady territory, produces flowers, long, smooth, green leaf that is lighter on the back than on the front, which is waxy and shiny, veins grow diagonally, small sturdy branches that interlock.

Medium cabbage-like plant: grows in the territory as the previous one, highly textured, dark brown leaf, did not have a visible stem, fragile.

White flower-like plant: puffy, white, long, thin, green stem with smaller ones that open up to flower, no leaves, looks like earth's cottonballs, grows in the sunlight, no leave-like structures.

Critique of Baseline Report:
-Insufficient number of samples had been taken by the previous group. This resulted in incomplete and therefore highly inaccurate results.
-The sample size used by the previous group in their classification scheme wasn't diverse or large enough. ( For example, the sample they used did not include a sample of fungus, though it was present in the area.)
-The previous group's classification scheme underestimated the number of species due to small sample size, as was illustrated by the omission of fungus in the previous report
-The previous group's use of size as a method of classification proved problematic. A difference in size could simply indicate an organism at a different stage of development as opposed to different species, ex: fully mature maple tree and sapling
-The previous group's use of size as a method of classification resulted in an overestimation of the number of species.